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UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme MEDITERRANEANACTIONPLAN RegionalActivityCentreforSpeciallyProtectedAreas

“IdentificationofPotentialSPAMIsinMediterranean AreasBeyondNationalJurisdiction”

GiuseppeNotarbartolodiSciaraandTundiAgardy 28August2009

IdentificationofPotentialSPAMIsinMediterranean AreasBeyondNationalJurisdiction Studyrequiredandfinancedby: RegionalActivityCentreforSpeciallyProtectedAreas BoulevardduLeaderYasserArafat BP337 1080TunisCedex–Tunisia Responsibleofthestudy: GiuseppeNotarbartolodiSciara Inchargeofthestudy: GiuseppeNotarbartolodiSciara,TethysResearchInstitute,Italy TundiAgardy,SoundSeas,USA Referenceforthestudy: ContractN°01/2008_RAC/SPA,HighSeas. Thisreportshouldbequotedas: NotarbartolodiSciaraG.,AgardyT.2009.IdentificationofpotentialSPAMIsinMediterraneanAreas BeyondNationalJurisdiction.ContractN°01/2008_RAC/SPA,HighSeas.70p.

Tableofcontents 1.ExecutiveSummary..................................................................................................................................................................4 2.Generaloverviewandanalysisofexistinginformation...........................................................................................................6 2.1Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................6 2.2Historicalbackground..................................................................................................................................................7 2.3Stateoftheart.............................................................................................................................................................9 2.3.1Sub‐regionalclassification....................................................................................................................................9 2.3.2BiophysicalfeaturesoftheMediterraneanHighSeas.......................................................................................11 2.3.3BiodiversityoftheMediterraneanHighSeas.....................................................................................................15 2.3.4CurrentstatusofprotectionintheMediterraneanHighSeas...........................................................................19 2.3.5Distributionofhumanthreats............................................................................................................................20 3.Definitionofoperationalcriteriaforthesiteselectionprocess............................................................................................22 3.1Currentlyexistingmarineprotectedareaselectioncriteria.......................................................................................22 3.1.1SPAMIselectioncriteria(AnnexIoftheSPA/BDProtocoltotheBarcelonaConvention)..................................22 3.1.2CBDecologicalcriteriaandbiogeographicclassificationsystemsformarineareasinneedofprotection........24 3.1.3Othercriteria.......................................................................................................................................................26 3.2CriteriaadaptedforMediterraneanABNJsiteselection............................................................................................29 4.PotentialSPAMIsitesinMediterraneanAreasBeyondNationalJurisdiction.......................................................................34 4.1OverviewofProcessforSelectingPotentialSPAMISites...........................................................................................34 4.2OverviewofMediterraneanEBSAs.............................................................................................................................35 4.3DetailsofpolygonsusedtodesignateEBSAs.............................................................................................................41 4.4ResultingpotentialSPAMIsitesintheMediterraneanABNJ.....................................................................................59 5.RoadmapforthesuccessfulimplementationofSPAMIsinMediterraneanAreasBeyondNationalJurisdiction.................62 5.1StrategicplanforcatalyzingSPAMIplanninganddesignation...................................................................................63 5.2TargetedresearchinpotentialSPAMIsites................................................................................................................63 5.3AnalysestoguiderecommendedMPAdesignateachSPAMIsite.............................................................................65 6.Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................................................................66 7.Literaturecited......................................................................................................................................................................67

1.ExecutiveSummary TheMediterraneanSeaisatoncehighlytreasured,andundervalued.Whilebothancientcivilizationsand modernsocietieshaveacknowledgedthesea’simportance,largeswathsofthebasinremainunmanaged andopentothreats. AreasBeyondNationalJurisdictions(ABNJs)currentlyconstitutethebulkoftheBasin’svolumeof2.5 millionsquarekilometres.Thisvastareaisdiverse,withpocketsofrelativelyhighproductivity,andlargely unprotected.Creatinganecologicalnetworkofrepresentativemarineprotectedareasundertheaegisof theBarcelonaConventionanditsSpeciallyProtectedAreasofMediterraneanImportance(SPAMI)listings intheABNJscoulddomuchtopreservetheintegrityofthisgloballyimportantregion. Thisreportdescribesthefirstphaseintheprocessofdevelopingsucharepresentativenetwork.We describeastrategicandhierarchicalprocessofusingexistingdatabasesandanalysestodelineateareasof conservationimportance,usingtheSPAMIcriteriaharmonisedwithcriteriafromothersiteselection methodologiestosuitMediterraneanconditionsandinformationavailability. ThefirststepinthishierarchicalprocesswastheassessmentofsubregionswithintheMediterraneanBasin. SubdividingtheBasinintosubregionsensuresthattheeventualMPAnetworkwillbetrulyrepresentative ofallregions,aswellasallhabitattypes.WhilepreviousresearchershavedividedtheMediterranean eitherintotwolargesubregions(EastandWest)orsevensmallersubregions(seeSpaldingetal.2007),we identifyeightdistinctsubregions:AlboránSea,Algero‐ProvencalBasin,TyrrhenianSea,AdriaticSea,Ionian Sea,TunisianPlateau–GulfofSidra,AegeanSea,andLevantineSea. Thesecondstepintheprocesswastoreviewexistingcriteria,adaptthem,andaddadditional discriminatingfeaturestoguidetheselectionofsites.Areviewofexistinginformationbasesrevealsthat dataqualityisinconsistentacrosstaxaandgeographicalregions,yetmuchusefulinformationisavailable. Theregion‐specificcriteriathatweused,withtheSPAMIcriteriaasastartingpoint,relyheavilyontheCBD criteriathatemergedfromtheAzoresmeeting(2008),butwithadditionalcriteriathatguaranteethatthe resultingnetworkwillconservebiologicaldiversityandecologicalintegritytothemaximumextentpossible. Dataonbenthicinvertebrates,fishfauna,sharks,birds,marineturtles,pinnipeds,andcetaceanswere particularlyusefultothesiteselectionprocess.Inaddition,informationonkeybiogenicandphysical habitatsintheABNJdomainhelpscreateausefulbaselineforthehierarchicalmethodology. Thesiteselectionprocessentailsthreediscretesteps:1)identifyingthepriorityregions(EBSAs)ineachof theMediterraneanABNJssubdivisionsusingtherefinedsiteselectioncriteria;2)applyingfurtheranalysis tothepreviouslyhighlightedpriorityareasinordertoidentifypotentialsitesthatcouldbeprotectedas SPAMIs;and3)preparingashortlistofpotentialsitesintheABNJswhichcouldbeprotectedasSPAMIs. Inordertoselectareasofconservationsignificanceorconcern,knownasEcologicallyorBiologically SignificantAreas(EBSAs)withinwhichpotentialSPAMIsiteswereelaborated,wesurveyedkeyexpertsin variousaspectsofMediterraneanecologyandmarinebiodiversitytohighlightespeciallyimportantareas withineachsubregion,askingthemtorankcriteriaaccordingtotheextenttowhichithelpedthemintheir determination.Theresultingpolygonswereoverlaidtohighlightespeciallycriticalareas,10EBSAsinall. 4

Furtheranalysisallowedustolist15highestpriorityareas,withinwhichRAC/SPAandthepartiestothe BarcelonaConventioncandevelopSPAMInominations. Finally,weelaboratedaroadmapforcarryingthisfurtherinordertoeventuallydevelopanecologicaland representativenetworkofmarineprotectedareasusingSPAMIdesignationsonABNJs.Nextstepsincludea threatandsocio‐economicfactorsanalysisinordernotonlytoidentifyvulnerablesitesneedingprotection asSPAMIs,butalsotobeabletofactorinfeasibility.Asubsequentinitiativeshouldhavethreeessential components:1)developmentofastrategicplantoelaboratetheprioritieswithintheSPAMIlist;2) targetedresearchtodeterminewithgreaterspecificitytheecologicalcharacteristicsofeachpriorityarea, itsboundaries,anddirectthreatstothebiodiversitytheareasupports;and3)analysestodeterminethe optimalspatialmanagementschemeforeachoftheSPAMIs,includingwhetherprotectedareasshouldbe zoned,whatsortofregulationsshouldbeinstituted,howareasshouldbemonitoredandregulations enforced,andtheappropriategovernanceregimefortheseABNJareas. TheseresultsshouldhelpguideRAC/SPAinpresentingpossibleoptionsfortheContractingPartiestothe BarcelonaConventiontoconsiderinfutureSPAMIdesignations,inordertotakethisimportantsteptoward protectingMediterraneanmarinebiodiversity.

2.Generaloverviewandanalysisofexistinginformation

2.1Introduction TheMediterraneanHighSeasencompassalargepartoftheMediterraneanBasin,whichcoverssome2,5 millionkm2ofoceanarea.Thehighseassupportawidearrayofmarinelifeandhavepocketsofrelatively highproductivity,yettodateonlyasinglemarineprotectedarea(the“PelagosSanctuaryfor MediterraneanMarineMammals”)existstosafeguardthisbiodiversity.Thisprojectaimstoprovidethe foundationforasystemofprotectedareas,designatedasSpeciallyProtectedAreasofMediterranean Importance(SPAMIs),whichwhenimplementedwillcontributetostavingofffurtherbiodiversityloss. Weareawareofthefactthejurisdictionsarefluidandchanging,asexemplifiedinrecenteffortsdescribing thesituation(e.g.,SuarezdeViveroandSlim,2008).However,weareconsideringforthepurposeofthis reporttheMediterraneanHighSeasasalltheseasbeyondtheripariannations’territorialwaters(i.e.,12 nauticalmilesfromthecoast,exceptforGreeceandTurkey,whereterritorialwatersendat6n.m.from thecoast).Figure2‐1,takenfromSuarezdeViveroandSlim,2008,showsthelimitoftheseterritorialseas, aswellasothercategoriesofjurisdictionforMediterraneancoastalcountries. DespitethedynamicnatureofthelegalframeworkforMediterraneanmarineconservation,selectionof priorityareaswillcreateimportantimpetusformoreeffectivemanagement.Wefeelthatifthelegal regimeinMediterraneancountrieschangesandcountriesmovetodeclareEEZsupto200nauticalmiles out,theselectionofHighSeasSPAMIareaswillbolsterrationaleforcountriestomoveaheadwith unilateralprotection,andatthesametimewillacttobringinternationalattentiontotheseoverlookedbut valuableareas.

Fig.2‐1.ArepresentationofthecurrentstatusofmaritimejurisdictionsintheMediterraneanSea,proposedby J.L.SuarezdeVivero,UniversityofSeville. 6

2.2Historicalbackground TheMediterraneanSeahasbeencentraltohumancivilizationformillennia,andassuchhasbeenbetter travelledandlongerstudiedthananyotheroceanbody.Yetmuchoftheoceanbasinremainsamystery,in termsofknowledgeaboutecologicalprocesses,thedistributionandabundanceofmarineorganisms,the conditionofitsecosystems,andthedriversofbiodiversityloss. MediterraneanSea‐wideassessmentshavebeencarriedoutinthelastseveraldecades,includingthose undertakenundertheaegisofUNEPandtheWorldBank(notablythefirstMediterraneanEnvironment Programme,WorldBankReportof1993andsubsequentMETAPreports).Mostoftheseassessments, however,focusedonthenearshoreandtheriparianinfluencesofpollutedfreshwaterreaching Mediterraneanshores.ThelatterbodyofknowledgeledtothedevelopmentoftheBluePlan–yethigh seasareascontinuetolackattention. AnotableexceptionwasthecreationofthePelagosSanctuaryforMediterraneanMarineMammals.When inMarchof1991Tethyspresented“ProjectPelagos”tothepublicinMonaco,ithadthesupportoflocal businessmenintheRotaryClubchaptersinItaly(Milan),MonacoandFrance(SaintTropez),andthe EuropeanAssociationRotaryfortheEnvironment.PrinceRainierIIIofMonacoreceivedtheproposal enthusiasticallyandgrantedsupportofthePrincipality.ItwasPrinceRainierIIIwhothenchampionedthe ideathatasanctuaryforcetaceansbeeventuallycreatedintheLigurian‐Corsican‐Provencalbasinthrough atrilateralagreementamongFrance,ItalyandMonaco(NotarbartolodiSciaraetal.2008). AnotherexceptiontothelackofattentioncharacterisingtheMediterraneanHighSeasconcernsthe2005 decisionbytheGeneralFisheriesCommissionfortheMediterranean(GFCM)tobantrawlingon Mediterraneanbottomsbelowthedepthof1,000m,whichincludesthegreatestportionofthe MediterraneanHighSeasseafloor;andthe2006designationbytheGFCMofthreeecologicallyimportant areasoff‐limitstobottomtrawlinganddredges,whichareallorinpartwithinthehighseas(i.a10,295km2 wideareasurroundingtheEratosthenesseamountsouthofCyprus;ii.a976km2widedeepwatercoral (Lophelia)reefoffCapoSantaMariadiLeuca,Italy,intheIonianSea;andiii.a4,374km2wideareaofcold hydrocarbonseepsandassociatedchemosyntheticcommunitiesoffshorefromtheNileDelta). Recentattentionhasfocusedonpreviouslyignoredhighseasareas,includingwidelydistributedand ecologicallysignificantseamounts.Greenpeace(2004),inareportonMediterraneanmarinereserves, flagged32prioritysitesthatweresuggestedworthyofMPAdesignations,andmanyoftheseextend beyondterritorialwaters(Fig.2‐2).

Fig.2‐2.ProposalsforareastobeconsideredfortheestablishmentofmarinereservesintheMediterraneanSea byGreenpeace(2004).Forlocationscorrespondingtothenumbersinthemappleaserefertotheoriginalreport.

Greenpeace’s(2004)proposalfortheconsiderationofmarinereserveestablishmentincludes:theAlborán Sea,anumberofseamountsintheWesternMediterranean,thewaterssurroundingtheBalearicIslands, theGulfofLion,theAlgerianstretch,theCarthaginianstretch,theLigurianSea,theCentralTyrrhenianSea, theStraitofMessina,theSicilyStrait,theMalteseslope,theMedinaRidge,theGulfofSirte(=Sidra),the Libyanhead,theUpperAdriatic,thePomo/JabucaTrench,theOtrantoChannel,theHellenicTrench,the Olimpimudfield,theSaronikosGulf,theNorthernSporadesIslands,theThracianSea,theLimnos‐ Gökçeadaareainthenorth‐easternAegean,astretchbetweenCreteandTurkey,theCentralLevantine Sea,theAnaximanderMountains,theCyprusChannel,theEratosthenesSeamount,thePhoeniciancoast, andtheNilefan. UNEP’sWorldConservationMonitoringCentreinCambridge(UK)keepsadatabaseonknownseamount locations,andtheseandotherbathymetricdatashouldbeconsideredtoselectHighSeasSPAMIsites. Currently,effortsareongoingtopromotethecasefortheestablishmentoflargeinternationalHighSeas protectedareasintheAlboránSea(RicardoSagarminaga,pers.comm.)andintheStraitofSicily1. AnolderattempttodrawattentiontoareasoftheMediterraneanworthyofconsiderationforprotectionis representedbyagapanalysisconductedoverthewholeregionthroughtheimplementationofa*gIS approach(Franzosinietal.2001),whichhoweverconcentratedeffortswithinadepthrangeof0‐250m, thusexcludingtheHighSeasfrommostoftheanalysis.Nonetheless,Franzosinietal.’sefforthighlighted theneedforresortingtoproxiesforbiodiversitymeasuresinlargeportionsoftheMediterranean,because taxonomicandgeographicgapsinprotectionstillremain,inpartduetothelackofsystematicsurveys.For thisreason,wesuggesttheadoptionofstandardcriteriausedbymanyinstitutionsandorganizationsfor marinesiteselection(seeSection3inthisdocument).

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2.3Stateoftheart 2.3.1Sub‐regionalclassification Inarecentreport(NotarbartolodiSciaraandAgardy2008)wehavearguedthatinplanningaregional networkofMPAstheadoptionofathree‐stephierarchicalapproachisrecommended,whichbeginsatthe largescaleandfocusesinonever‐smallerscales.Atthelargestscale,inthiscasethatoftheMediterranean Basin,thefirstrecommendedstepindesigninganecologicalnetworkistheidentificationoflargescale ecologicalunits.Thepurposeofthisistorecognizeecologicaldistinctionsbetweendifferentpartsofthe region,andensurethatsomethingthatiscalledaMediterraneanNetworkofMPAsistrulycomprehensive andrepresentativeofallofitssub‐regions.ThefirsttaskisthereforetosubdividetheMediterraneaninto broadlyhom*ogeneoussub‐units,whichwillhelpprioritysettingandplanningformarineconservationin theregion.

Fig.2‐3.Theseven“ecoregions”proposedbySpaldingetal.(2007)fortheMediterranean(36.AlboránSea,35. WesternMediterranean,30.AdriaticSea,34.IonianSea,33.TunisianPlateau/GulfofSidra,31.AegeanSea,32. LevantineSea).

Themostrecentattemptatdevelopingadetailed,comprehensivebiogeographicsystemtoclassifythe oceanswasrecentlyproposedbySpaldingetal.(2007),whosubdividedtheworld’scoastalandshelfareas intoanestedsystemof12realms,62provincesand232ecoregions.InSpaldingetal.’sclassification,the MediterraneanSeaProvince,partoftheTemperateNorthAtlanticRealm,issubdividedintoseven ecoregions:AlboránSea,WesternMediterranean,AdriaticSea,IonianSea,TunisianPlateau/GulfofSidra, AegeanSea,andLevantineSea(Fig.2‐3). WeconsiderSpaldingetal.’s(2007)contributionasignificantadvanceinthedevelopmentofgeographic toolsformarineconservationplanning,butsuggestthatthesubdivisionoftheMediterraneanProvinceinto ecoregionsbeslightlymodifiedtofitmorecloselytheregion’sexistinggeomorphologicaland biogeographicdiversity.OurproposalcontemplateseightsubregionsinsteadofSpaldingetal.’sseven.

EcoregionsbySpaldingetal.2007(Fig.2‐3)

MarineStrategyFrameworkDirective

1.AlboránSea

1.WesternMediterraneanSea

2.WesternMediterranean

Ourproposal(Fig.2‐4) 1.AlboránSea 2.Algero‐ProvencalBasin 3.TyrrhenianSea

3.AdriaticSea

2.AdriaticSea

4.AdriaticSea

4.IonianSea

3.IonianSeaandCentral MediterraneanSea

5.IonianSea

4.Aegean–LevantineSea

7.AegeanSea

5.TunisianPlateau–GulfofSidra 6.AegeanSea 7.LevantineSea

6.TunisianPlateau–GulfofSidra

8.LevantineSea Table2‐1.ComparisonamongdifferentsubdivisionsoftheMediterraneanintosubregions.

Theproposedschemewillalsoallowencompassingsubregionswithinthefourmainsubdivisionsofthe MediterraneanSeaestablishedbythe2008EUMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective(Table2‐1,central column),whichisrelevanttothoseMediterraneanripariannationsthatareEuropeanUnionmember states.

Fig.2‐4.SuggestedsubdivisionoftheMediterraneanintoeightsubregions(1.AlboránSea,2.Algero‐ ProvencalBasin,3.TyrrhenianSea,4.AdriaticSea,5.TunisianPlateau/GulfofSidra,6.IonianSea,7. AegeanSea,8.LevantineSea).

Inparticular,comparedtothesubdivisionsoftheMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective,ourproposal simplysplitsintothreethe“WesternMediterraneanSea”,intotwothe“IonianSeaandCentral 10

MediterraneanSea”,andintotwothe“Aegean–LevantineSea”.ThisisacceptablebecausetheDirective statesthat“…inordertotakeintoaccountthespecificitiesofaparticulararea,…[itispossibleto]… implementthisDirectivebyreferencetosubdivisionsattheappropriatelevelofthemarinewaters… providedthatsuchsubdivisionsaredelimitedinamannercompatiblewiththefollowingmarinesubregions ….(i)theWesternMediterraneanSea;(ii)theAdriaticSea;(iii)theIonianSeaandtheCentral MediterraneanSea;(iv)theAegean‐LevantineSea.” Furthermore,comparedtotheecoregionalsubdivisionproposedbySpaldingetal.(2007),ourproposal:a) splitsthe“WesternMediterranean”intotwo,consideringthatmorphological,oceanographicand biogeographicaldifferencesbetweenTyrrhenianSeaandtheAlgero‐Provencalbasin;b)movesthe boundarybetweenIonianSeaandTunisianPlateau–GulfofSidratomorecloselyreflectthedepthprofiles ofthearea;andc)movestheboundarybetweenAegeanSeaandLevantineSeatoensurethecorrect delimitationoftheformer. 2.3.2BiophysicalfeaturesoftheMediterraneanHighSeas TheMediterraneanisasemi‐enclosedseaalmostentirelylandlockedbetweenEurope,AfricaandAsia.In spiteofitssmallsizecomparedtotheworld’soceans,theMediterraneanisconsideredadeepsea,with areasofseafloorexceedingthedepthof5,000m(Fig.2‐5).TheonlyconnectionwiththeAtlanticOceanis theStraitofGibraltar,320mdeepand14kmwide.TheMediterraneanisalsoconnectedtotheBlackSea throughtheTurkishStraitsSystem,whichisasshallowas70mintheBosphorus.TheMediterranean’s connectionwiththeRedSea,theman‐madeSuezChannel,openedin1869,isirrelevantfromthepointof viewofwatermassexchangeswiththeworld’soceans,butithasbecomeasignificantcorridorfor biologicaldispersion.Anorth‐southridgebetweenSicilyandtheAfricancoast,withaminimumdepthof 400m,subdividesthebasinintoawesternandeasternportion.WiththeexceptionoftheAdriaticand AegeanSeas,offthecoastsofTunisia,LibyaandsouthernSicily,thecontinentalshelfisverynarrowand constituteslessthan25%ofthetotalbasinarea(Sardàetal.2004).

Fig.2‐5.SeafloortopographyoftheMediterraneanSea(SmithandSandwell1997). 11

TheMediterraneanSeahasanegativehydrologicalbalance,withlossthroughevaporationexceedingthe inputofwaterthroughrunoffandprecipitation.Thisdeficiencyismainlycompensatedbytheflowof AtlanticsurfacewatersthroughtheStraitofGibraltar(about35,000km3year‐1).Themajorfeatureofthe surfacecurrentsystemoftheMediterraneanisthemovementofsurfacewaterfromtheAtlantictoward theeastcombinedwithnumerousspin‐offeddiesalongtheway(Miller1983).Circulationpatternsinthe MediterraneanSea,andtheprogressivediversificationofAtlanticsurfacewaterintoastructuredsystemof intermediateanddeeplayers,arenowwellunderstoodanddescribed(e.g.,MillotandTaupier‐Letage 2004). TheMediterraneancirculationsystemalsoincludesstrongverticalconvectioncurrentsthatdeterminethe distributionofsalinityandprovideforverticalrecyclingofnutrientsandotherdissolvedsubstances. However,theseahasrelativelylowconcentrationsofnutrientsevenindeeperwaters.Thesechemicals areexportedintheflowofdeepwaterthroughtheStraitofGibraltarthatinturnreceivesnutrient‐poor surfaceAtlanticwater.Nodeepnutrient‐richAtlanticwaterstakepartintheMediterraneancirculation, andtheinputofnutrientsismostlyduetoriverinputandagriculturalrunofforpollution(Miller1983).

Fig.2‐6.Chlorophyllclimatologicalannualmean(SeaWIfsdata,1998‐2003,courtesyofV.Barale,JRC).

Comparedtoaverageoceanicproductivityintemperatelatitudes,Mediterraneanwatersaremostly oligotrophic,particularlyintheeasternportionofthebasin,exceptinthevicinityoflargerivers,inareas wheregeomorphological,meteorologicalandoceanographicfeaturescauselocalisedupwellingsand consequenthigherlevelsofprimaryproduction(e.g.,Jacques1989,BakunandAgostini2001),andthrough gravity‐inducedsedimenttransportinunderwatercanyons(Canalsetal.2007).HighSeasareaswhere primaryproductivityisaboveaverageincludetheAlboránSea,theGulfofLionandLigurian‐Provencal 12

Basin,thewatersoffshoretheKerkennashallows,theNorthernAdriatic,theNorthernAegeanandthe watersoffshoretheNileDelta(Fig.2‐6). Sedimentshaveingeneralloworganiccarboncontentduetothelowbiologicalproductivityofthewaters andthepresenceofhighoxygenconcentrationsindeepwaters.Localoxygendeficienciesarealways connectedwitheutrophicationsources,mostlydischargesofrawortreatedurbanoragriculturaleffluents. Theirdistributionaroundtheregionisuneven,withamaximuminthenorthwestandintheAdriaticSea andaminimumonthesouthernshores.Owingtothestrongstratificationofsurfacewaters, eutrophicationismoreacuteinsummerwhenambientnutrientconcentrationsarelowandoxygen transportthroughthethermoclineisstronglyreduced.Wintermixingallowsfortherequiredvertical transportofoxygentokeepthedeepwatersandthesedimentsoxidizedallovertheMediterraneanSea (Cruzado1985). TheMediterraneanHighSeasalsocontainecologicallysignificantfeaturessuchasslopes,seamounts, canyons,andunderseavolcanoes.Clarketal.(2006)predictedtheexistenceof59largeseamountsinthe MediterraneanandBlackSeas,basedonGIStechnology.Suchrudimentaryinformationonthelocation andconditionofsomeofthesesubseafeaturescouldbeimprovedthroughacombinationbetween observedfeatures(e.g.,Fig.2‐7)andGIS‐basedpredictedlocationsofseamounts.This,togetherwith informationonfrontalsystemsandotherecologicalsignificantfeaturesofthewatercolumn,canbeused toidentifypriorityconservationareas. Aguilaratal.(2006)recogniseanumberofEuropeanhabitatsrelevanttomarinebiodiversity,whichthey subdivideintophysicalhabitatsandbiogenichabitats.Physicalhabitatsinclude:a)raisedfeatures (seamounts,mounds,hills,canyons,trenches,etc.);b)constructivegases(submarinevolcanoes, hydrothermalvents,coldwaterseeps,etc.);c)caves,cavernsandoverhangs;d)pelagicenvironments (convergencezones,divergencezones,marinecurrents,etc.);ande)marinedeserts(sandyseabeds, muddyseabeds,stoneandgravelseabeds,mixedsedimentsseabeds,etc.).

Fig.2‐7.DistributionofthemajorseamountsandcanyonsintheMediterraneanSea(Pergent2008).

Biogenichabitatsinclude:a)coralreefs(Coralliophilareefs,oculinidreefs,deep‐seasoftcoralreefs,etc.); b)molluscreefs(mytilidreefs,oysterreefs,vermetidreefs,Limidaereefs);c)crustaceanreefs (lepadomorphreefs,balanomorphreefs,mixedcrustaceanreefs,etc.);d)polychaetewormreefs(sabellid reefs,mixedpolychaetewormreefs,etc.);e)spongefieldsandaggregations(calcareousspongefields, Hexatinellidaspongefields,Desmospongiaspongefields,mixedspongefields,etc.);f)gorgoniangardens (circalittoralgorgoniangardens,deep‐seagorgoniangardens,etc.);g)seagrassmeadows(meadowsof Posidonia,Cymodocea,Zostera,Halophila,etc.);h)greenalgaemeadows(meadowsofCaulerpa,Halimeda, etc.);i)brownalgaeforests(fucoidandlaminarialforests);j)redalgalconcretions(corallinealgae,Maerl beds,Mesophyllumreefs,laminarforests,trottoirs,Corallinaceaseabeds,Peyssonnellinaceaseabeds,etc.); andk)othertypesofhabitats(understoriesofbrownalgae,mixedmeadowsofphotophilicalgaeand/or carpetsofmixedalgae,bedsoffilamentousalgae,rockpools,habitatsformedbycolonialspeciesof hydrozoans,bryozoansandtunicates,colonialanthozoansorconcentrationsofcnidarians,etc.).Manyof thesehabitatsarepresentin(orconfinedto)theMediterraneanHighSeas,andashosttosignificant concentrationsofuniqueandvulnerablemarinebiodiversityurgentlydeserveinventorying,mappingand considerationforprotection(Aguilaretal.2006). Tudelaetal.(2004)identifiedanumberofdeep‐seahabitatfeaturesintheMediterranean(Fig.2‐8), includingsubmarinecanyons,coldseepsassociatedtomudvolcanoes(harbouringchemosynthetic communities),coldwatercoral“reefs”,seamountsandbrinepools.

Fig.2‐8.Presentlyknowndistributionofdeep‐seauniquebiocenosesintheMediterraneanand adjacentAtlanticwaters(Tudelaetal.2004).

Thesameauthorsproposedaplanofactiontoaddresstheconservationissuesandmanagementofhuman activitiesrelatedtotheprotectionoftheMediterraneandeepseas,framedwithinthecurrentrelevant legalsituation,andconsideringtheinternationalpolicycontextandthecurrentcommitmentstothe relevantinternationalconventions.

2.3.3BiodiversityoftheMediterraneanHighSeas Whileitexhibitsalowoveralllevelofbiologicalproductivity,theMediterraneanSeaaswellasthe surroundinglandsischaracterizedbyarelativelyhighdegreeofbiologicaldiversity(UNEP1999).Thefauna includesmanyendemicspeciesandisconsideredricherthanthatofAtlanticcoastalareas(Bianchiand Morri2000).Withfewexceptions,thecontinentalshelfisusuallynarrow,butthecoastalmarineareaof theMediterranean,whichstretchesfromtheshoretotheouterextentofthiscontinentalshelf,shelters richecosystemsandthemainareasofhighproductivityinthesea.Whereascentralzonesofthe Mediterraneanaregenerallylowinnutrients,coastalzonesbenefitfromtelluricnu*trientsthatsupport higherlevelsofproductivity. ThebiotaoftheMediterraneanSeaconsistsprimarilyofAtlanto‐Mediterraneanspecies(62%)derivedfrom theadjacentAtlanticbiogeographicprovincesbeyondtheStraitofGibraltar.Many(>20%)Mediterranean speciesareendemic,whileothersarecosmopolitanorcircumtropical(13%),orIndo‐Pacific(5%).These proportionsdifferfordifferentmajortaxonomicgroupsandalsofordifferentpartsoftheMediterranean Sea,butthepatternremainsessentiallythesame(Ketchum1983). WithintheMediterraneanthereisagradientofdecreasingspeciesdiversityfromwesttoeast.Thenumber ofspeciesamongallmajorgroupsofplantsandanimalsislowerintheeasternMediterraneanthaninthe westernandcentralpartsofthesea.Thesoutheastcorner,theLevantBasin,isthemostimpoverished area.Thebenthicandlittoralpopulationsshowasimilarchangeinspeciesdiversityandabundance,which decreasefromwesttoeast,andfromthenorthernAdriatictothesouth(Ketchum1983). AccordingtoZenetosetal.(2005),outofatotalofabout6000benthicinvertebratespeciesinthe Mediterranean,about67%(4030)arefoundinthewesternMediterranean,38%(2262)intheAdriaticSea, 35%(2119)intheCentralMediterranean,44%(2637)intheAegean,and28%(1658)intheLevantineSea. Thistrendinnumberofspeciesdemonstratesawest‐eastzoogeocline:alargenumberofgeographic, climaticandtrophicvariablesarehighlycorrelatedwiththispatternwhichhasbeenfoundtobesimilarfor manytaxonomicgroups(Zenetosetal.2005).

Fig.2‐9.Species‐richnessdistributionof79deepseamarinespeciesintheMediterraneanandadjacent seasproposedbyAquaMaps(Kaschneretal.2008).

Thiszoogeoclineisalsoevidentfromamap(Fig.2‐9),availablefromtheonlineproject“AquaMaps” (www.aquamaps.org,Kaschneretal.2008),representingthespecies‐richnessdistributionof79deepsea fishspecies.AquaMapsisanapproachtogeneratingmodel‐based,large‐scalepredictionsofcurrently knownnaturaloccurrenceofmarinespecies.Modelsareconstructedfromestimatesoftheenvironmental toleranceofa*givenspecieswithrespecttodepth,salinity,temperature,primaryproductivity,andits associationwithseaiceorcoastalareas.Mapsshowthecolour‐codedrelativelikelihoodofaspeciesto occurinaglobalgridofhalf‐degreelatitude/longitudecelldimensions,whichcorrespondstoasidelength ofabout50kmneartheequator.Predictionsaregeneratedbymatchinghabitatusageofspecies,termed environmentalenvelopes,againstlocalenvironmentalconditionstodeterminetherelativesuitabilityof specificgeographicareasforagivenspecies.Knowledgeofspecies’distributionswithinFAOareasor boundingboxesisalsousedtoexcludepotentiallysuitablehabitatinwhichthespeciesisnotknownto occur.WeanticipatethatasdatawillcontinueflowingintotheAquaMapsmeta‐database,thiswillsoon becomeaveryusefultooltosupportdecisionsconcerningtheestablishmentofHighSeasMPAsnetworks. Thedeep‐waterfaunaoftheMediterraneanischaracterizedbyanabsenceofdistinctivecharacteristics andbyarelativeimpoverishment.BotharearesultofeventsaftertheMessiniansalinitycrisis(Late Miocene).Thethreemainclassesofphenomenainvolvedinproducingorrecordingtheseeffectsare: • •

•

historical:sequentialfaunalchangesduringthePlioceneandthereafterinparticularthoseduring theQuaternaryglaciationsandstillinprogress; bathymetric:changesintheverticalaspectsoftheBathyalandAbyssalzonesthattookplaceunder peculiarconditions,i.e.hom*othermy,arelativeoligotrophy,thebarrieroftheGibraltarsill,and watermassmovement.ThedeeperthehabitatofaspeciesintheMediterranean,themore extensiveisitsdistributionelsewhere; geographical:therearestrongaffinitiesandrelationshipsbetweenMediterraneanandAtlantic faunas.Endemicspeciesremainabiogeographicalproblem.Speciesalwaysbecomesmallerinsize eastwardwheretheyoccupyaprogressivelydeeperhabitat(EmigandGeistdoerfer,2004).

The Mediterranean Sea includes 6% of the world's species for less than 1% of the world's ocean surface area and 0.3% of its volume. The number of endemic species is significantly higher than that for the Atlantic Ocean (Bianchi and Morri 2000). The percentage of endemism is very high for the sessile or sedentary groups such as ascidians with 50.4%, sponges with 42.4%, hydroids with 27.1%, echinoderms with24.3%,butitisalsoconsiderable fortheothergroupssuchasdecapodcrustaceanswith13.2%and fishwith10.9%.Anaverageof28%ofallspeciesareendemic(Zenetosetal.2002). Ofcourse,notallofthesespeciesarepresentonthehighseasbeyondthe12n.m.limitofcurrent territorialseajurisdictions,butsomeofthosethatdofrequenttheHighSeasaredescribedbelow.These includearichselectionofmarinetoppredators(alsoknownas“charismaticmegafauna”),havingaspecial conservationimportancebyvirtueoftheirflagshipandumbrellaspeciesqualities. TheMediterraneanishosttoarelativelydiversechondrichthyanfishfauna,withanestimated80species (approximately7%oftotallivingChondrichthyans),comprising45speciesofsharksfrom17families,34 batoidspeciesfromninefamiliesandonespeciesofchimaera(CavanaghandGibson2007).Suchfauna includesbreedingpopulationsofhighlycharismaticspeciessuchasgreatwhitesharks(Carcharodon carcharias),baskingsharks(Cetorhinusmaximus),andgiantdevilrays(Mobulamobular),allofwhichare listedinAnnexIIoftheSPAProtocoltotheBarcelonaConvention(UNEPMAPRAC/SPA2003a).Arecent IUCNRedListassessmentoftheMediterraneanchondrichthyanfaunahasdeterminedthat42%ofthe 16

speciesareconsideredthreatened,ofwhich18%areCriticallyEndangered,11%areEndangeredand13% areVulnerable(CavanaghandGibson2007).Ferrettietal.(2008)estimatedthathammerhead(Sphyrna spp.),blue(Prionaceglauca),mackerel(IsurusoxyrinchusandLamnanasus),andthreshersharks(Alopias vulpinus)havedeclinedtodayintheMediterraneanbetween96and99.99%relativetotheirformer abundance.Suchdramaticdecline,causedalmostentirelybyunsustainablelevelsofexploitationoverthe lastdecades,mightbereversedinpartthroughtheestablishmentofHighSeasMPAsencompassingthese species’criticalhabitats. Theloggerhead(Carettacaretta),leatherback(Dermochelyscoriacea),andgreen(Cheloniamydas)marine turtlesareallfoundintheregion,andlistedinAnnexIIoftheSPAProtocoltotheBarcelonaConvention (UNEPMAPRAC/SPA1989).Whiletheloggerheadremainsrelativelyabundant,itseemstohavedeserted manypartsoftheWesternBasinwhereitisdisturbedbyfishingactivity.Theothertwospeciesare becomingincreasinglyrare.Nestingsitesforanisolated,criticallyendangeredpopulationofthe herbivorousandmigratorygreenturtlecanbefoundinCyprus,Turkey,EgyptandLibya.Thereareonlya totalof2,000nestingfemalesatthesesitesandthisnumberisdeclining.Theleatherbackturtleisrarely seenintheMediterranean,althoughtherearesomebreedingrecordsforIsraelandSicily.Important nestingsitesfortheloggerheadturtlearelocatedonthecoastfromTurkeytoIsrael,onanumberof Mediterraneanislands,andatscatteredsitesalongtheNorthAfricancoast. TheMediterraneanisofsignificantimportanceformigratorybirdspecies.AccordingtotheMediterranean ActionPlan,some150migratorybirdspeciesbiannuallycrossthenarrownaturalpassagesintheregionsof Gibraltar,CapBon(Tunisia),Messina(Italy),BelenPass(Turkey),theLebanesecoastandtheSuezIsthmus, takingadvantageofthewetlandsoccurringontheirway(Ramade1990).Pelagicbirdspeciesinthe Mediterraneanarerelativelyfew,howevercoloniesofCory’sshearwaters(Calonectrisdiomedea diomedea),Levantineshearwaters(Puffinusyelkouan),Balearicshearwaters(P.mauretanicus),andstorm petrels(Hydrobatespelagicusmelitensis)canstillbefoundbreedingalongsea‐cliffsoronsmallisolated rockyislandsandislets(UNEPMAPRAC/SPA2003b).Therefore,conservationofthesespecies’feeding groundsintheMediterraneanHighSeaswillhavetobecoupledwithconservationofthecorresponding breedinggrounds,clearlyillustratingtheneedfornetworksofMPAsthatwilltakeintoaccountthe seasonallydifferentlifehistorytraitsofthespeciestoprotect.TheSPAProtocoloftheBarcelona Conventionlist15species2ofmarinebirdsinitsAnnexII,andanActionPlanfortheirprotectionwas adoptedbytheContractingPartiestotheBarcelonaConventioninNov.2003.Ofallthelistedspecies, severalarethreatened.TheendemicAudouin'sgull(Larusaudouinii),intheorderof600‐800remaining pairs,hasreacheddangerouslylowpopulationlevelsanddependsonrockyislandsandarchipelagos,free fromdisturbance,asbreedingsites.SeveralspeciesofbirdstypicalfortheMediterraneanclimatological regionarethreatenedintheirEuropean,andpossiblyinthewholeoftheirMediterraneanrange,because ofthelossofsuitabledisturbance‐freehabitat.Ofparticularnote(UNEPMAPRAC/SPA2003b)arethe threatenedspeciesPelecanusonocrotalus(whitepelican),P.crispus(Dalmatianpelican),Falcoeleonorae (Eleonora’sfalcon),Phoenicopterusruber(greaterflamingo),Phalacrocoraxaristotelisdesmarestii (Mediterraneanshag),P.pygmeus(pigmycormorant),Pandionhaliaetus(osprey),Numeniustenuirostris (slender‐billedcurlew),Sternabengalensis(lessercrestedtern),S.sandvicensis(Sandwichtern),andS. albifrons(littletern).

Oneofwhich,Puffinusyelkouan,waslatersplitintoP.yelkouanandP.mauretanicus,thusbringingthenumberofbirdspeciesdefactoconcerned byAnnexIIto16.

Severalspeciesofmarinemammalshavereacheddangerouslylowpopulationlevels,andtheirsurvivalhas becomequestionableunlessimmediatemeasuresaretakenfortheirconservation.Thespeciesinwhich thisismostevidentistheCriticallyEndangeredMediterraneanmonkseal(Monachusmonachus),which dependsonrockyislandsandarchipelagosfreefromdisturbanceasbreedingsites.Thepopulationofthese sealsintheMediterraneanisprobablylessthan300individuals.Theirgreatestconcentrationoccursalong theTurkishandGreekcoastsandaroundtheAegeanislands.Verysmallnumbersarealsothoughtto remaininMorocco,AlgeriaandprobablyLibya.Thehomerangesofthesepinnipedsarenotknown,noris thefrequencyoftheiroccurrenceinHighSeasareas. TwentyonecetaceanspecieshavebeenreportedintheMediterraneanSea,abouthalfofwhichcome Atlanticpopulationsenteringtheseaonlysporadically(ReevesandNotarbartolodiSciara2006).The MediterraneanSeacontainscriticalhabitatofonlyonelargemysticete(finwhale,Balaenopteraphysalus) andnineodontocetes(spermwhale,Physetermacrocephalus;Cuvier’sbeakedwhale,Ziphiuscavirostris; killerwhale,Orcinusorca3;long‐finnedpilotwhale,Globicephalamelas;Risso’sdolphin,Grampusgriseus; commonbottlenosedolphin,Tursiopstruncatus;short‐beakedcommondolphin,Delphinusdelphis;striped dolphin,Stenellacoeruleoalba;andharbourporpoise,Phocoenaphocoena4),allofwhichallfoundregularly

Fig.2‐10.Cetaceans,monkseal,seabirds,turtles,sharksandbluefintunacriticalhabitats.Cetaceans:lightgreenpolygons;monk seal:darkgreensmallcircles(establishedareas)andredsmallcircles(areastobeestablished);birds:pinkareas;turtles:yellow circles(nestingbeaches)andbluecircles(feedingareas);sharks:lightgreencircles(nurseryareasofvariousspecies);bluefin tuna:redpolygon(fromHoytandNotarbartolodiSciara,2008).

intheregion.Fourotherspecies(minkewhale,Balaenopteraacutorostrata;humpbackwhale,Megaptera novaeangliae;falsekillerwhale,Pseudorcacrassidens;andrough‐tootheddolphin,Stenobredanensis)have beenreportedfromtheMediterraneanseveraltimesduringthepastfewdecades,andmaybemore regularintheregionthanpreviouslythought(particularlyS.bredanensis:D.Kerem,pers.comm.).All marinemammalsoccurringintheMediterraneanarelistedinAnnexIItotheSPAProtocol,andallcetacean 3 4

LimitedtotheareaoftheStraitofGibraltar. LimitedtotheNorthernAegeanSea.

speciesareprotectedbytheUNEPCMS“AgreementontheConservationofCetaceansoftheBlackSea, MediterraneanSea,andContiguousAtlanticArea”(ACCOBAMS).AjointIUCN‐ACCOBAMSefforttoassess theconservationstatusofthepopulationsbelongingtotencetaceanspeciesregularlyoccurringinthe MediterraneanSea,fortheirinclusionintheRedList,determinedthat60%arethreatened(Critically Endangered,EndangeredandVulnerable),and40%areDataDeficient(ReevesandNotarbartolodiSciara 2006).GuidelinesfortheestablishmentintheMediterraneanofMPAsforcetaceansweredevelopedby theRAC/SPA(NotarbartolodiSciara2007).ArecentefforttoidentifytheMediterraneandistributionof criticalhabitatsofsixgroupsoftopmarinepredators(cetaceans,monkseal,seabirds,turtles,sharksand bluefintuna),tohelpidentifyingconcentrationareaswheretheestablishmentofMPAsmightsupport conservation(Fig.2‐10),waspresentedduringtheWorldConservationCongressinBarcelona(Hoytand NotarbartolodiSciara2008). ThemaprepresentedinFig.2‐10isacombinationofinformationprovidedbysourcesofexpertiseinthe respectivefields(cetaceanareaswereadoptedbytheContractingPartiestoACCOBAMSby recommendationoftheAgreement’sScientificCommittee;monksealareaswereproposedbyMOmand SADAfa*g;seabirdareaswereproposedbyregionalexpertsofBirdlifeInternational;turtleareaswere proposedbyMediterraneanexponentsofIUCN’sMarineTurtleSpecialistGroup;sharkareaswere proposedbyMediterraneanexponentsofIUCN’sSharkSpecialistGroup).HoytandNotarbartolodiSciara’s effortshouldbeconsideredastillcrudegeographicalrepresentationofimportanthabitatareasfora selectionoftheregion’smainmarinetoppredators,duetothepartlyconjecturalnatureoftheoriginal dataandtothelackofinformationfromasignificantportionoftheregion(mostlyacrosstheIonian, AegeanandLevantineseas);howeverithasthemeritofprovidingastrawman–preparedcooperativelyby groupsofexpertswhohaverarelyworkedtogetherinthepast–tobefurtherdevelopedandimproved throughreiterationsofDelphicmethodsandsoftware‐supporteddesignations. 2.3.4CurrentstatusofprotectionintheMediterraneanHighSeas Echoingtheplanofimplementationadoptedin2002bytheworld’snationsattheWorldSummiton SustainableDevelopment(WSSD)5,theWorldParksCongressinDurban2003recommendedthat “networks[ofprotectedareas]shouldbeextensiveandincludestrictlyprotectedareasthatamounttoat least20‐30%ofeachhabitat.”Currently,fullymarineprotectedareasofallkinds–whethercoastaland pelagic‐coverlessthanonepercentoftheMediterraneanSea‐afarcryfromtheWPCrecommendation (Greenpeace2004,Abdullaetal.2008b).ThesituationissignificantlyworseconcerningtheMediterranean HighSeas,whereonlythePelagosSanctuaryforMediterraneanmarinemammalsandtheareasoff‐limits tobottomtrawlingdesignatedbytheGFCMenjoyformalprotection.Whetherthesefewareasalsobenefit fromrealprotection,however,isaquestionopentodebate.InthePelagosSanctuary,actualmanagement andconservationactionsareseverelylimitedbytheevidentreluctancebytheAgreement’sContracting Partiestomandatesuchactionstoanadequatelyempoweredmanagementbody6.Inthedeeptrawling‐ bannedareasdesignatedbytheGFCM,actualenforcementisunknown,butprobablynon‐existent,and

“Develop and facilitate the use of diverse approaches and tools, including ... the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with internationallawandbasedonscientificinformation,includingrepresentativenetworksby2012”. 6 Annex I, D. 6. to the SPA Protocol to the Barcelona Convention states that “To be included in the SPAMI List, a protected area must have a managementbody,endowedwithsufficientpowersaswellasmeansandhumanresourcestopreventand/orcontrolactivitieslikelytobecontrary totheaimsoftheprotectedarea.”ThisisclearlynotthecaseofthePelagosSanctuary.

preliminaryevidenceindicatesthatpermanentdamagetosomeofthesedelicatebiocenosesmighthave alreadyoccurred(X.Pastor,Oceana,pers.comm.). 2.3.5Distributionofhumanthreats WhileadetailedanalysisofthethreatsaffectingbiodiversityintheMediterraneanHighSeasisbeyondthe remitofthisreport,asitwillbeaddressedinfullinamoreadvancedstageofthisproject,abriefoverview ofsuchthreatswillhelptoplacethecurrenteffortinperspective. Nomarineareaisunaffectedbyhumaninfluenceandalargefraction(41%)isstronglyaffectedbymultiple drivers(Halpernetal.2008).ThemarinebiodiversityintheMediterraneanisparticularlyatrisk,duetothe limitedvolumeofthismarinebodyofwatercomparedtothegrowingintensityofhumanpressuresthat areexertedonit(EuropeanEnvironmentAgency1999).Severeandmountingdemographicpressures alongtheMediterraneancoastalzoneareimpactingonthemarineenvironmentinseveralways: overfishingandillegalfishing,pollution,disturbance,noise,invasionsbyalienspecies,climatechangesare amongthemainimpactingfactorsaffectingtheMediterraneanbiodiversity(forarecentreviewsee Greenpeace2004). TheMediterraneanfishfaunaisdiversebutfisheriesaregenerallydeclining.Ofthe900orsoknownfish species,approximately100arecommerciallyexploited.Unsustainablecatchratesofrays(includingthe disappearanceofcertaintaxafromcommercialcatches)andotherdemersalspeciesareofspecialconcern (Tudela2004);inrecentyears,theMediterraneanpopulationsofbluefintunasraisethehighestconcerns duetooverfishing(WWF2007,MacKenzieetal.2009).Fisheriesimpactsextendbeyondelasmobranchs, finfish,orothertargetspecies:longlinefishingisamaincauseofseabirdmortalityintheMediterranean; whilelonglineandotherfisherieskillseaturtlesincidentally(Tudela,2004).Longlinefleetsareaparticular threattotheloggerheadturtlepopulation,asaretrawlersandsmall‐scalegearsinsomeareas,suchasin theGulfofGabès.Driftnetfisheriesand,toamuchlesserextent,small‐scalefisheriesusingfixednetsand purseseinefisheriesappeartoaccountforthehighestimpactontheregion’scetaceansandarealso responsibleforthehighestratesofdirecthuman‐inducedmortality.Thepopulationofmonksealinthe Mediterraneancontinuestobeatriskfromdirectmortalitybyartisanalfishinggearsanddeliberatekilling byfishermen,andareaffectedbyanincreasingscarcityoffoodresourcesdrivenbyoverfishing(e.g., NotarbartolodiSciaraetal.2009). MaritimetrafficisnegativelyaffectingMediterraneanbiodiversityinavarietyofways,includingship movement,noise,groundingandanchoring,ship‐generatedoildischargesandexhaustemissions,the introductionintheenvironmentofpersistentorganicpollutants,sewageanddebris,andalienspecies introductionanddiffusion(forareview,seeAbdullaandLinden2008).Thechangeinmarinebiodiversityis proceedingatanunprecedentedpace,ashundredsofexoticspecies‐‐mostlyoftropicalIndo‐Pacificorigin ‐‐havesettledinrecentdecadesintheMediterraneanSea.Thetrendininvasivespeciesappearstobe acceleratingwiththerapidgrowthofmaritimetrafficwhichbringswithitalienfauna(introducedvia ballastwatersorattachedtothehull).“Present‐daywarmingultimatelyfavoursthespreadofwarmwater speciesthroughdirectandindirecteffects,andespeciallybychangingwatercirculation.Itisimpossibleat presenttoforeseetowhatextenttheexuberanceofwarm‐waterspecieswillaffectthetrophicweband thefunctioningofmarineecosystemsintheMediterraneanSeaoftomorrow”(Bianchi2007).

Furthermore,likethroughouttheworld’soceans(Hildebrand2005),theMediterraneanisbecomingan increasinglynoisyenvironment,causedbyshipping,militarysonar,andoil&gasprospecting,whichis impactingonvariousspecies,inparticularcetaceans(Pavan2006).

3.Definitionofoperationalcriteriaforthesiteselectionprocess InthisSectionofthedocumentwefirstexamineanumberofmarineprotectedareaselectioncriteria(3.1), mostnotablytheSPAMIselectioncriteriaoftheSPA/BDProtocoltotheBarcelonaConvention(3.1.1),but alsotheCBDcriteriafortheidentificationofecologicallyorbiologicallysignificantareas(3.1.2)aswellas othercriteriasuchasthosedevelopedbyIMOforParticularlySensitiveSeaAreas,naturalcriteriaforthe identificationofmarinesiteshavingoutstandinguniversalvaluedevelopedwithintheframeworkofthe WorldHeritageConvention,andsiteselectioncriterialistedintheEU‘Habitats’Directive(3.1.3). Secondly,wepresentanadaptationoftheSPAMIselectioncriteriatoMediterraneanABNJsiteselection (3.2),withacombinationofusefulelementsfromothersetsofcriteria,inparticularthosedevelopedwith theCBD.

3.1Currentlyexistingmarineprotectedareaselectioncriteria 3.1.1SPAMIselectioncriteria(AnnexIoftheSPA/BDProtocoltotheBarcelonaConvention) TheSPAMIcriteria(Commoncriteriaforthechoiceofprotectedmarineandcoastalareasthatcouldbe includedintheSPAMIList),areincludedinAnnexIoftheProtocoltotheBarcelonaConvention“concerning SpeciallyProtectedAreasandBiologicalDiversityintheMediterranean”(alsoknownasthe“SPA/BD Protocol”).TheSPA/BDProtocolsubdividesthecriteriainto:a)generalprinciples;b)generalfeaturesof theareasthatcouldbeincludedintheSPAMIList,c)legalstatus,andd)protection,planningand managementmeasures. A.ThegeneralprinciplesincludeadescriptionofthebasicaimcharacterizingtheSPAMIs,statetheneed forascientificbasisintheselection,theneedforrepresentativeness,requirethecreationofanetworkof protectedareasbasedoninternationalcooperation,andemphasizethemodelroleofSPAMIsforthe region’smarineconservationefforts. B.AmongthegeneralfeaturesoftheareasthatcouldbeincludedintheSPAMIList,arequirementisthat anyarea,toqualifyforSPAMIstatus,mustfulfilatleastoneofthefollowingfundamentalcriteria(asstated inArt.8,paragraph2oftheProtocol): 1. theareamustbeofimportanceforconservingthecomponentsofbiologicaldiversityinthe Mediterranean; 2. theareamustcontainecosystemsspecifictotheMediterraneanareaorthehabitatsofendangered species; 3. theareaisofspecialinterestatthescientific,aesthetic,culturaloreducationallevels. Tosupportassessmentoftheregionalvalueofthearea,theAnnexliststhefollowingcriteria: • •

Uniqueness.Theareacontainsuniqueorrareecosystems,orrareorendemicspecies. Naturalrepresentativeness.Theareahashighlyrepresentativeecologicalprocesses,orcommunity orhabitattypesorothernaturalcharacteristics.Representativenessisthedegreetowhichanarea representsahabitattype,ecologicalprocess,biologicalcommunity,physiographicfeatureorother naturalcharacteristic. 22

• • • •

Diversity.Theareahasahighdiversityofspecies,communities,habitatsorecosystems. Naturalness.Theareahasahighdegreeofnaturalnessasaresultofthelackorlowlevelofhuman‐ induceddisturbanceanddegradation. Presenceofhabitatsthatarecriticaltoendangered,threatenedorendemicspecies(alistofspecies formallydeclaredendangeredofthreatenedisincludedinAnnexIItotheProtocol). Culturalrepresentativeness.Theareahasahighrepresentativevaluewithrespecttothecultural heritage,duetotheexistenceofenvironmentallysoundtraditionalactivitiesintegratedwithnature whichsupportthewell‐beingoflocalpopulations.

Anothergeneralfeaturethatanareahavingscientific,educationaloraestheticinterestmustpossesstobe consideredforinclusionintheSPAMILististo“presentaparticularvalueforresearchinthefieldofnatural sciencesorforactivitiesofenvironmentaleducationorawarenessorcontainoutstandingnaturalfeatures, landscapesorseascapes.” Inadditiontothefundamentalcriterianumberedabove,theAnnexlistsasetofothercharacteristicsand factorsofanareathatshouldbeconsideredasfavourableforitsinclusionintheList: • • • • •

theexistenceofthreatslikelytoimpairtheecological,biological,aestheticorculturalvalueofthe area; theinvolvementandactiveparticipationofthepublicingeneral,andparticularlyoflocal communities,intheprocessofplanningandmanagementofthearea; theexistenceofabodyrepresentingthepublic,professional,non‐governmentalsectorsandthe scientificcommunityinvolvedinthearea; theexistenceintheareaofopportunitiesforsustainabledevelopment; theexistenceofanintegratedcoastalmanagementplanwithinthemeaningofArticle4paragraph 3(e)oftheConvention.

C.ThelegalstatusrequirementsforareastobeeligibleforinclusionintheSPAMIListincludeasetof conditionsthatwillguaranteethearea’seffectivelong‐termprotection:i.thattheareabeawardedformal legalstatus;ii.thatthePartyexercisingsovereigntyorjurisdictionoverthezonewheretheareaissituated recognisesthearea’sprotectedstatus;andiii.iftheareais“situated,partlyorwholly,onthehighseaorin azonewherethelimitsofnationalsovereigntyorjurisdictionhavenotyetbeendefined,thelegalstatus, themanagementplan,theapplicablemeasuresandtheotherelementsprovidedforinArticle9,paragraph 3,oftheProtocolwillbeprovidedbytheneighbouringPartiesconcernedintheproposalforinclusionin theSPAMIList.” D.The“Protection,planningandmanagementmeasures”sectionoftheAnnexdetailspost‐institutional featuresthatanyareamustpossesstobeabletoretainitsstatusofSPAMIandtocontinuetobeincluded intheSPAMIList.Theseinclude:acleardefinitionofconservationandmanagementobjectives;adetailof protection,planningandmanagementmeasuresthatmustadequatelyaddresstheconservationand managementobjectivesandtheexistingthreats,andbebasedonadequateknowledge;shouldsuch knowledgebeinsufficient,scientificprogrammesshouldbeimplemented;acleardefinitionofthe administrative,implementationandenforcementcompetencesandresponsibilities,includingprotection measuresaddressingaspectsofpollution,speciesintroduction,andregulationofharmfulhumanactivities. Thissectionfurtherstatesanumberofinstitutional,operationalandadministrativerequirementsforareas tobeincludedintheSPAMIList,suchastheexistenceofanadequatelyempoweredmanagementbody,an implementedmanagementplan,andafunctionalmonitoringprogramme.

WhileallthefoursectionsofAnnexIareoffundamentalimportancetoguaranteethewell‐functioningof SPAMIs,thepartoftheAnnexthatismostrelevanttothepurposeofthecurrenteffort,i.e.thedefinition ofcriteriafortheselectionprocess,isSectionB(“Generalfeaturesoftheareasthatcouldbeincludedin theSPAMIList”).However,thesecriteriaaloneareinsufficienttoensurethatarepresentativenetworkof MPAs–includingintheOpenSeas–willdevelopintheMediterraneanSea.Unfortunately,thecurrent processforprogressivelyenlistingMPAsintheSPAMIList(i.e.,withtheresponsibilityforproposing additionstotheListrestingsolelyontheinitiativeandgoodwilloftheindividualContractingPartiestothe BarcelonaConvention),importantasitis,isnotnecessarilyconducivetothedevelopmentofa MediterraneannetworkofMPAsthatisecologicallyrepresentativeandthatwillaffordprotectiontothe fullrangeoftheregion’sbiodiversity. Toachievethis,itwillbenecessarytointegratetheSPAMIselectioncriteriawithcriteriathatwererecently developedtoaddressbuildingofrepresentativenetworksofMPAs,especiallyinareaswithlimited scientificinformation,suchasthehighseas(ConventiononBiologicalDiversity2008).Inaddition,itwillbe importanttoensurethattheprogrammeofMPAnetworkdevelopmentintheMediterraneanisin harmonywithanarticulatedregionalplanningprocess(Agardy2005),whichiswidelyshared,asadvocated yearsagobytheWorldCommissiononProtectedAreasduringanadhocscopingmeeting(Livorno,Italy, December2004:NotarbartolodiSciara2006). 3.1.2CBDecologicalcriteriaandbiogeographicclassificationsystemsformarineareasinneedof protection Newguidelinesandusefulcriteriaweredevelopedduringan“Expertworkshoponecologicalcriteriaand biogeographicclassificationsystemsformarineareasinneedofprotection”,organisedintheAzoresin October2007undertheauspicesofCBD(ConventiononBiologicalDiversity2008).Thesecriteriawere lateradoptedduringthe13thSBSTTAMeetingheldinRomeinFeb.2008.Weconsiderthesecriteriaquite relevanttothecurrenteffort.Inparticular,theAzoresworkshopproduced: 1. Scientificcriteriaforidentifyingecologicallyorbiologicallysignificantmarineareas(“EBSAs”)in needofprotection,inopen‐oceanwatersanddeep‐seahabitats,includingexamplesoffeatures thatwouldmeetsuchcriteria. 2. Scientificcriteriaandguidanceforselectingareastoestablisharepresentativenetworkofmarine protectedareas,includinginopen‐oceanwatersanddeep‐seahabitats. ThecriteriaforEBSAsidentifiedbytheworkshopinclude: • • • • • • •

Uniquenessorrarity(tothebestoftheavailableknowledge), Specialimportanceforlifehistorystagesofspecies, Importanceforthreatened,endangeredordecliningspeciesand/orhabitats, Vulnerability,fragility,sensitivityorslowrecovery, Biologicalproductivity, Biologicaldiversity, Naturalness.

Theworkshopreport(ConventiononBiologicalDiversity2008)details,foreachcriterion,adefinition,the rationale,examplesindifferenthabitats,andconsiderationsforitsapplication. 24

Eventhoughnotalltheabovelistedcriteriaarenovel,thefactthattheyweredevelopedforglobal applicationbutarehereappliedtotheregionalscaleoftheMediterraneanisindeednovel. Inlightofthisregionalapplication,onequestionwithparticularrelevancetotheMediterraneanishowto selectthespeciestobeusedasreferenceforsomeoftheabovecriteria.Forinstance,speciescouldbe selected:a)iftheyarelistedinAnnexesIIorIIItotheSPAProtocol;b)iftheyareassignedtoathreat categorywithinIUCN’sRedList;c)iftheyincludetopmarinepredators;ord)iftheycanbeclassifiedas umbrella,flagship,keystoneorindicatorspecies. Anon‐exhaustivelistofexamplesoffeaturesthatwouldmeettheabovecriteriaforidentifyingecologically orbiologicallysignificantmarineareas(orspecies),providedintheCBDworkshopreport,includemany featuresthatarerelevanttotheprotectionofMediterraneanbiodiversityintheOpenSeas. Theseare: Benthicfeatures • • • • • • •

Seamountcommunities, Coldwatercoralreefs, Coral,spongeandbryozoanaggregations, Hydrothermalventecosystems, Coldseeps, Canyons, Trenches.

Pelagichabitats • • •

Upwellingareas, Fronts, Gyres.

Vulnerableand/orhighlymigratoryspeciescriticalhabitatsandcorridors • • • • • •

Whalesandothercetaceans, Seabirds, Seaturtles, Sharks, Highlymigratoryfish, Discretedeep‐seafishpopulations.

Theworkshopalsoprovidedausefulsetofguidelinesfortheselectionofareastoestablisha representativenetworkofMPAs,includinginopen‐oceanwatersanddeep‐seahabitats.Wesuggestthat thesecriteriabetakenintoaccountduringtheprocessofimplementinganetworkofSPAMIsin MediterraneanAreasBeyondNationalJurisdiction(Section5).Startingfromanoverarchinggoalofa*global representativenetworkofMPAs(“Maintain,protectandconserveglobalmarinebiodiversitythrough conservationandprotectionofitscomponentsinabiogeographicallyrepresentativenetworkofecologically coherentsites”),theAzoresmeetingsuggestedthatthecoherenceofsuchnetwork“canbeattainedby diversemechanismsthatpromotethegeneticflow,throughconnectivity,amongpopulationsofmarine organismswithplanktoniclifehistoryphases.Amongstothersareoceancurrentsprovidinghom*ogeneity 25

withinadispersalareaandgeographicaldistanceandbarriersthatpromoteisolationandassociated biologicaldiversity.”Alloftheaboveconsidered,theAzoresmeetingrecommendedfollowingfourinitial steps: •

•

Identifyaninitialsetofecologicallyorbiologicallysignificantareas,usingthecriterialistedunder1 above,consideringthebestscientificinformationavailable,andapplyingtheprecautionary approach. Develop/chooseabiogeographichabitatand/orcommunityclassificationsystem,toreflectthe scaleoftheapplicationandaddressthekeyecologicalfeaturesofthearea(mostlikely,thiswill entailaseparationbetweenthepelagicandbenthicrealms). Drawinguponthetwostepsabove,iterativelyusequalitativeand/orquantitativetechniquesto identifysitestoincludeinanetwork.Selectionshouldreflectrecognisedecologicalimportance, vulnerability,andaddresstherequirementsofecologicalcoherencethroughrepresentativity, connectivityandreplication. Finally,assesstheadequacyandviabilityoftheselectedsitesasfunctionalMPAsbasedon considerationsofsize,shape,bufferingandmanagementfeasibility.

Table2intheCBD2008report(page55andfollowing)provideshelpfuldetailsontherequirednetwork criteria (ecologically and biologically significant areas, representativity, connectivity, replicated ecological features, and adequate & viable sites), including definitions and examples of applicable site‐specific considerations.

3.1.3Othercriteria Althoughthemostrelevantandusefulforthetask,theCBDcriteriaarenottheonlycriteriathatwere examinedintheeffortofupdatingandcomplementingtheapplicabilityoftheSPAProtocolcriteriatothe identificationofMediterraneanEBSAs.Otherrelevanttoolsexaminedinclude: •

Fournaturalcriteriafortheidentificationofmarinesiteshavingoutstandinguniversalvaluewithin theframeworkofUNESCOS’WorldHeritageConvention(UNESCO2008);

•

SiteselectioncriterialistedintheEUHabitatsDirective(Anon.2006);

•

ThecriteriaforParticularlySensitiveSeaAreas(PSSAs)developedbyIMO(InternationalMaritime Organisation2006).

ConsideringtheintensityofshippingintheMediterraneanSea,whichmakesthisregionparticularly vulnerabletoimpactfrommaritimetransport,aspecialattentionwasattributedtothe“ecological,socio‐ economic,orscientificcriteriafortheidentificationofaParticularlySensitiveSeaArea”(International MaritimeOrganisation2006),whichrelatetoPSSAswithinandbeyondthelimitsofterritorialseas. Theseare: Ecologicalcriteria 4.4.1Uniquenessorrarity–Anareaorecosystemisuniqueifitis“theonlyoneofitskind”.Habitats ofrare,threatened,orendangeredspeciesthatoccuronlyinoneareaareanexample.Anareaor 26

ecosystemisrareifitonlyoccursinafewlocationsorhasbeenseriouslydepletedacrossitsrange. Anecosystemmayextendbeyondcountryborders,assumingregionalorinternationalsignificance. Nurseriesorcertainfeeding,breeding,orspawningareasmayalsoberareorunique. 4.4.2Criticalhabitat–Aseaareathatmaybeessentialforthesurvival,function,orrecoveryoffish stocksorrareorendangeredmarinespecies,orforthesupportoflargemarineecosystems. 4.4.3Dependency–Anareawhereecologicalprocessesarehighlydependentonbiotically structuredsystems(e.g.coralreefs,kelpforests,mangroveforests,seagrassbeds).Suchecosystems oftenhavehighdiversity,whichisdependentonthestructuringorganisms.Dependencyalso embracesthemigratoryroutesoffish,reptiles,birds,mammals,andinvertebrates. 4.4.4Representativeness–Anareathatisanoutstandingandillustrativeexampleofspecific biodiversity,ecosystems,ecologicalorphysiographicprocesses,orcommunityorhabitattypesor othernaturalcharacteristics. 4.4.5Diversity–Anareathatmayhaveanexceptionalvarietyofspeciesorgeneticdiversityor includeshighlyvariedecosystems,habitats,andcommunities. 4.4.6Productivity–Anareathathasaparticularlyhighrateofnaturalbiologicalproduction.Such productivityisthenetresultofbiologicalandphysicalprocesseswhichresultinanincreasein biomassinareassuchasoceanicfronts,upwellingareasandsomegyres. 4.4.7Spawningorbreedinggrounds–Anareathatmaybeacriticalspawningorbreedingground ornurseryareaformarinespecieswhichmayspendtherestoftheirlife‐cycleelsewhere,oris recognizedasmigratoryroutesforfish,reptiles,birds,mammals,orinvertebrates. 4.4.8Naturalness–Anareathathasexperiencedarelativelackofhuman‐induceddisturbanceor degradation. 4.4.9Integrity–Anareathatisabiologicallyfunctionalunit,aneffective,self‐sustainingecological entity. 4.4.10Fragility–Anareathatishighlysusceptibletodegradationbynaturaleventsorbythe activitiesofpeople.Bioticcommunitiesassociatedwithcoastalhabitatsmayhavealowtolerance tochangesinenvironmentalconditions,ortheymayexistclosetothelimitsoftheirtolerance(e.g., watertemperature,salinity,turbidityordepth).Suchcommunitiesmaysuffernaturalstressessuch asstormsorothernaturalconditions(e.g.,circulationpatterns)thatconcentrateharmful substancesinwaterorsediments,lowflushingrates,and/oroxygendepletion.Additionalstress maybecausedbyhumaninfluencessuchaspollutionandchangesinsalinity.Thus,anareaalready subjecttostressfromnaturaland/orhumanfactorsmaybeinneedofspecialprotectionfrom furtherstress,includingthatarisingfrominternationalshippingactivities. 4.4.11Bio‐geographicimportance–Anareathateithercontainsrarebiogeographicqualitiesoris representativeofabiogeographic“type”ortypes,orcontainsuniqueorunusualbiological, chemical,physical,orgeologicalfeatures.

Social,culturalandeconomiccriteria 4.4.12Socialoreconomicdependency–Anareawheretheenvironmentalqualityandtheuseof livingmarineresourcesareofparticularsocialoreconomicimportance,includingfishing, recreation,tourism,andthelivelihoodsofpeoplewhodependonaccesstothearea. 4.4.13Humandependency–Anareathatisofparticularimportanceforthesupportoftraditional subsistenceorfoodproductionactivitiesorfortheprotectionoftheculturalresourcesofthelocal humanpopulations. 4.4.14Culturalheritage–Anareathatisofparticularimportancebecauseofthepresenceof significanthistoricalandarchaeologicalsites. Scientificandeducationalcriteria 4.4.15Research–Anareathathashighscientificinterest. 4.4.16Baselineformonitoringstudies–Anareathatprovidessuitablebaselineconditionswith regardtobiotaorenvironmentalcharacteristics,becauseithasnothadsubstantialperturbationsor hasbeeninsuchastateforalongperiodoftimesuchthatitisconsideredtobeinanaturalor near‐naturalcondition. 4.4.17Education–Anareathatoffersanexceptionalopportunitytodemonstrateparticularnatural phenomena. Forthepurposeofthecurrentwork,whichfocusesontheselectionofnewareas,onlytheecological criteriaofthePSSAsystem(4.4.1to4.4.11)arerelevant.Mattersrelatedtohumanaspects(social, cultural,economic,scientificandeducational)aremorerelevanttothesecondphaseoftheproject.A comparisonbetweentheCBDandPSSAcriteria(Table3‐1below)revealsthatallelementscontainedinthe PSSAcriteriaalsofigureintheCBDcriteria,albeitattimeswithaslightlydifferentformulation. CBDselectioncriteria a.Uniquenessorrarity b.Biologicalproductivity c.Biologicaldiversity d.Specialimportanceforlifehistoryof species e.Naturalness f.Importanceforthreatened, endangeredordecliningspecies and/orhabitats

PSSAcriteriarelatingtothe correspondingCBDcriteria 1.Uniquenessorrarity 11.Bio‐geographicimportance 3.Dependency 6.Productivity 5.Diversity 3.Dependency 7.Spawningorbreeding grounds 8.Naturalness 9.Integrity 2.Criticalhabitat

Notes

g.Vulnerability,fragility,sensitivity, slowrecovery

10.Fragility 4.Representativeness

RelevantinthecaseofMPAnetworks

Table3‐1.ComparisonbetweenCBDEBSAsandPSSAcriteria.

3.2CriteriaadaptedforMediterraneanABNJsiteselection InarecentreportonthecreationofrepresentativenetworksofMPAsintheMediterraneanSea (NotarbartolodiSciaraandAgardy2008),theadoptionofathree‐stephierarchicalplanningapproachwas recommended,whichbeginsatthelargescaleandfocusesinonever‐smallerscales: 1. Atthewidestscale,inthiscasethatoftheMediterraneanBasin,thebaselinefordesigningan ecologicalnetworkinvolvestheidentificationoflargescaleecologicalunits.Thepurposeofthisis torecognizeecologicaldistinctionsbetweendifferentpartsofthesea,andensurethatsomething thatiscalleda“MediterraneanNetworkofMPAs”istrulycomprehensiveandrepresentativeofall ofitssub‐regions.Suchsubdivisionshouldbeconsideredinverygeneralterms,asabroad indicationofareaswhereplanningattentionshouldbefocused,withoutnecessarilyseparating subregionsthroughwell‐definedborders(“linesonamap”)whichmayeasilyleadtoendlessand irrelevantcontroversy. 2. Atthenextscale,priorityconservationareas,orEBSAs,areidentifiedwithineachecologicalunit. TheseareasdonotcorrespondtowhatwouldbecomeMPAsinthefuture,butwouldbefocal areasforindividualMPAnetworks. 3. Oncesuchpriorityconservationareasareidentified,thetaskofidentifyingsitestodeveloptrue ecologicalnetworkscanbeinitiated.IndividualMPAswithinthesenetworksshouldprotectwhatis ecologicallymostimportant–i.e.,theyshouldfocusonhabitatswhereaconcentrationof ecologicalprocessesresultsinahighdiversityofspecies.Tobecomeanetwork,itwillbe importantnotonlytoestablishMPAstoprotectthesekeyareas,butalsotomaintaintheecological linkagesbetweentheseareas(NotarbartolodiSciaraandAgardy2008). ToidentifyEBSAswithineachMediterraneanecoregion,anadaptationoftheSPAProtocolcriteriainlight oftherecentdevelopmentspromotedwithintheframeworkofCBDisrecommended. Thefollowingisamoredetailedexplanationofhowthecriteriamaybeappliedtotheidentificationof EBSAs(inbold:theSPAProtocolcriteria;initalics:thecorrespondingCBDcriteria). I.Uniqueness:“Theareacontainsuniqueorrareecosystems,orrareorendemicspecies”. Uniquenessorrarity:Areacontainseither(i)unique(“theonlyoneofitskind”),rare(occursonlyinfew locations)orendemicspecies,populationsorcommunities,and/or(ii)unique,rareordistinct,habitatsor ecosystems;and/or(iii)uniqueorunusualgeomorphologicaloroceanographicfeatures. Biologicalproductivity:Areacontainingspecies,populationsorcommunitieswithcomparativelyhigher naturalbiologicalproductivity.

NOTE:WesuggestthattheCBD“Biologicalproductivity”criterion,notexplicitlyincludedwithinthe SPAMIcriteria,maybebroadlyincludedunderthe“Uniqueness”SPAMIcriterionbecause discretelydelineatedhighproductivityareasintheMediterraneanOpenSeasarerare. II.Naturalrepresentativeness:“Theareahashighlyrepresentativeecologicalprocesses,orcommunity orhabitattypesorothernaturalcharacteristics.Representativenessisthedegreetowhichanarea representsahabitattype,ecologicalprocess,biologicalcommunity,physiographicfeatureorother naturalcharacteristic”. NOTE:ThisSPAProtocolcriteriondoesnotreadilyfindacorrespondentintheCBDcriteriafor EBSAs,sincerepresentativenessshouldbeameanstogaugethevalueofthenetworkasawhole, nottoevaluateindividualsites.Thisislogical.Werecommendthattheapplicationofthe ‘representativeness’criterionbeappliedtotheconstructionofnetworks(seeSection5.1)rather thantotheselectionandsitingofindividualSPAMIs. III.Diversity:“Theareahasahighdiversityofspecies,communities,habitatsorecosystems”. Biologicaldiversity:Areacontainscomparativelyhigherdiversityofecosystems,habitats,communities,or species,orhashighergeneticdiversity. Specialimportanceforlifehistorystagesofspecies:Areasthatarerequiredforapopulationtosurviveand thrive. IV.Naturalness:“Theareahasahighdegreeofnaturalnessasaresultofthelackorlowlevelofhuman‐ induceddisturbanceanddegradation”. Naturalness:Areawithacomparativelyhigherdegreeofnaturalnessasaresultofthelackoforlowlevelof human‐induceddisturbanceordegradation. V.Presenceofhabitatsthatarecriticaltoendangered,threatenedorendemicspecies. Importanceforthreatened,endangeredordecliningspeciesand/orhabitats:Areacontaininghabitatfor thesurvivalandrecoveryofendangered,threatened,decliningspeciesorareawithsignificantassemblages ofsuchspecies. Vulnerability,Fragility,Sensitivity,orSlowrecovery:Areasthatcontainarelativelyhighproportionof sensitivehabitats,biotopesorspeciesthatarefunctionallyfragile(highlysusceptibletodegradationor depletionbyhumanactivityorbynaturalevents)orwithslowrecovery.

VI.Culturalrepresentativeness:“Theareahasahighrepresentativevaluewithrespecttothecultural heritage,duetotheexistenceofenvironmentallysoundtraditionalactivitiesintegratedwithnature whichsupportthewell‐beingoflocalpopulations”. NOTE:ThisSPA/BDProtocolcriteriondoesnotreadilyfindacorrespondentintheCBDcriteriafor EBSAs,sincetheCBDisnotespeciallyconcernedwithculturalrepresentativeness.TheSPA ProtocoldefinitionofthecriterionhaslimitedapplicationintheidentificationofEBSAsinthe Mediterraneanopenseas,howeveritshouldbetakenintoaccountassessingthevalueof traditionalactivitiessuchasfisheries. Table3‐2liststheSPA/BDProtocolcriteriatobeappliedtoEBSAidentificationandcomparesthemwiththe correspondingCBDcriteria,alsoprovidingguidanceintheirapplicationwherecorrespondencebetween differentsetsofcriteriaisnotcomplete. SPA/BDProtocolselection criteria

CBDselectioncriteria

Notes

I.Uniqueness

a.Uniquenessorrarity

b.Biologicalproductivity

Highproductivityisararefeaturein oligotrophicMediterraneanOpenSeas

II.Natural representativeness

TheCBDusesrepresentativenessasa waytogaugethevaluethenetworkasa whole,nottoevaluateindividualsites

III.Diversity

c.Biologicaldiversity

Enhancesthebiodiversityofanarea

IV.Naturalness

d.Specialimportanceforlife historyofspecies e.Naturalness

V.Presenceofhabitatsthat arecriticaltoendangered, threatenedorendemic species

f.Importanceforthreatened, endangeredordecliningspecies and/orhabitats g.Vulnerability,fragility, Theseattributesrenderaspeciesor sensitivity,slowrecovery habitatparticularlysusceptibletothreats

VI.Cultural representativeness

TheCBDisnotconcernedwithcultural representativeness

Table3‐2.ComparisonbetweentheSPAMIcriteriaandtheCBDcriteriafortheidentificationofEBSAs.

ForthethirdstepinthedevelopmentofablueprintofaMediterraneannetworkofMPAs,i.e.,the identificationofsiteswithineachpriorityconservationareawherethecreationofSPAMIsisactually proposed,ourrecommendationistofollowtheprocessdetailedintheCBDreport.Thereportsuggests thatplanners: •

separatelyconsiderthepriorityconservationareaintopelagicandbenthicrealms;

•

identifysitesaddressingecologicalimportanceandvulnerability;

•

addresstherequirementsofecologicalcoherencethroughrepresentativity,connectivityand replication;andfinally

•

assesstheadequacyandviabilityoftheselectedsitesasfunctionalMPAsbasedonconsiderations ofsize,shape,bufferingandmanagementfeasibility.

Inthiscontext,theintroductionofdynamicMPAboundaries(sensuHyrenbachetal.2000)forthe protectionoffluctuatinghabitatsshouldbeconsideredifappropriate,aswasrecentlyproposedby Shillingeretal.(2008)toprotectleatherbackturtlesintheCentralEasternPacific,andimplementedas DynamicAreaManagementfisheryclosuresbytheU.S.NationalMarineFisheriesServicetoprotectright whalesfromentanglementsinfishinggearofMassachusetts(Johnson2005). Amajorchallengeinapplyingtheabovedescribedprocessresidesinthelackofadequatedata,in particularduetothefragmentaryecologicalknowledgecurrentlyexistingforpartofthesouthernand easternportionsoftheMediterraneanbasin.Suggestedstrategiestoovercomeconstraintsrelatedto limiteddataavailability:(i)usestakeholderandexpertknowledge,(ii)identifybestexamples,and(iii) identifythebest‐knownexamples(ConventiononBiologicalDiversity2008).Whenpossible,ininstances wheretherearefewdataorwheredataareinconsistentindifferentportionsoftheBasin,theselectionof proxiesforsomeofthecriteriamaysignificantlyhelp.Someoftheseproxiesareoceanographic,and reflectthestrongecologicaldriversthatthephysicalenvironmentexertontheecologicalcommunities. Otherproxieshavetodowithsurmisedecosystemcondition,andthecorollarydegreeofnaturalness.This problemisaddressedinconsiderabledetailinthe“GuidelinesfortheestablishmentoftheNatura2000 networkinthemarineenvironment”(Anon.2006). Inconclusion,welistinTable3‐3theeightproposedcriteriafortheselectionofEBSAsinthe MediterraneanSea,basedontheSPA/BDProtocolcriteriaforSPAMIsharmonisedwithothercurrently adoptedcriteria,mostnotablythoseadoptedbyCBD.

ProposedCriterion 1.Uniquenessorrarity:areacontainseither(i)unique (“theonlyoneofitskind”),rare(occursonlyinfew locations)orendemicspecies,populationsor communities,and/or(ii)unique,rareordistinct,habitats orecosystems;and/or(iii)uniqueorunusual geomorphologicaloroceanographicfeatures. 2.Specialimportanceforlifehistorystagesofspecies: areasthatarerequiredforapopulationtosurviveand thrive.

Correspondencesandnotes AsdefinedbyCBD(2008).Alsocorrespondsto: • Uniqueness(SPA/BDProtocol) • Uniquenessorrarity(IMO2006) Mayalsocorrespondto: • Bio‐geographicimportance(IMO2006) AsdefinedbyCBD(2008).Mayalsocorrespondto: • Presenceofhabitatsthatarecriticalto endangered,threatenedorendemicspecies (SPA/BDProtocol) • Diversity(SPA/BDProtocol) • Criticalhabitat(IMO2006) • Dependency(IMO2006) • Spawningorbreedinggrounds(IMO2006) AsdefinedbyCBD(2008).Mayalsocorrespondto: • Presenceofhabitatsthatarecriticalto endangered,threatenedorendemicspecies (SPA/BDProtocol) • Criticalhabitat(IMO2006) AsdefinedbyCBD(2008).Alsocorrespondsto: • Fragility(IMO2006) Mayalsocorrespondto: • Presenceofhabitatsthatarecriticalto endangered,threatenedorendemicspecies (SPA/BDProtocol) AsdefinedbyCBD(2008).Alsocorrespondsto: • Productivity(IMO2006). Mayalsocorrespondto: • Uniqueness(SPA/BDProtocol) • Integrity(IMO2006) AsdefinedbyCBD(2008).Alsocorrespondsto: • Diversity(SPA/BDProtocol) • Diversity(IMO2006) AsdefinedbyCBD(2008).Alsocorrespondsto: • Naturalness(SPA/BDProtocol) • Naturalness(IMO2006) Mayalsocorrespondto: • Integrity(IMO2006) AsdefinedintheSPA/BD Protocol,AnnexI

3.Importanceforthreatened,endangeredordeclining speciesand/orhabitats:areacontaininghabitatforthe survivalandrecoveryofendangered,threatened, decliningspeciesorareawithsignificantassemblagesof suchspecies. 4.Vulnerability,Fragility,Sensitivity,orSlowrecovery: areasthatcontainarelativelyhighproportionof sensitivehabitats,biotopesorspeciesthatare functionallyfragile(highlysusceptibletodegradationor depletionbyhumanactivityorbynaturalevents)orwith slowrecovery. 5.Biologicalproductivity:areacontainingspecies, populationsorcommunitieswithcomparativelyhigher naturalbiologicalproductivity.

6.Biologicaldiversity:areacontainscomparatively higherdiversityofecosystems,habitats,communities,or species,orhashighergeneticdiversity. 7.Naturalness:areawithacomparativelyhigherdegree ofnaturalnessasaresultofthelackoforlowlevelof human‐induceddisturbanceordegradation.

8.Culturalrepresentativeness:areahasahigh representativevaluewithrespecttothecultural heritage,duetotheexistenceofenvironmentallysound traditionalactivitiesintegratedwithnaturewhich supportthewell‐beingoflocalpopulations.

Table3‐3.Proposedcriteria

4.PotentialSPAMIsitesinMediterraneanAreasBeyondNationalJurisdiction

4.1OverviewofProcessforSelectingPotentialSPAMISites 1.Onthebasisofananalysisoftheinformationavailabletousregardingthepresenceofimportant elementsofmarinebiodiversityintheMediterraneanHighSeas,wehaveidentified10Mediterranean EcologicallyorBiologicallySignificantAreas(EBSAs),wherepotentialfutureSPAMIsitesinareasbeyond nationaljurisdiction(ABNJ)canbeproposed. 2.RecognisingthatthestateoftheartdescribedinSection2ofthisdocumentisinsufficientasabaseline todevelopeffectiverepresentativenetworksofMPAsintheHighSeas,inordertodelineateEBSAsandto identifyhighpriorityareas,andconsideringthatlargeportionsoftheMediterraneanSeaareverydata‐ poor,theexistingregionaldatabasesweresupplementedwithlocallyderivedindicators(e.g., geomorphologicalfeaturesoftheseafloor,areasofhighprimaryproductivity)asproxiesofmarine biodiversityhotspots,andexpertopinion.Informationbeingobtainedincludedataonphysical oceanographyoftheMediterraneanSea,modellingtopinpointareasofimportanceforselectspeciesand ecologicalintegrity,andmoredetailedinformationonthedistributionandabundanceofkeymarine species. 3.TheEBSAswehaveidentifiedoccurineachoftheeightsubdivisionsoftheMediterranean,whichwere proposedforconsiderationtotheFirstMeetingoftheSteeringCommitteeontheIdentificationofPossible SPAMIsintheMediterraneanAreasBeyondNationalJurisdiction(ABNJ),Tunis,17March2009(UNEP (DEPI)/MEDWG.330/6,24February2009;seealsoSection2.3.1ofthisdocument,andFig.2‐4),thus facilitatingregionalrepresentativeness. 4.UsingtheeightselectioncriteriaweputforwardtotheRAC/SPAinapreviousreport(Notarbartolodi SciaraandAgardy2009b;seealsoSection3andTable3‐3),andkeepinginspecialconsiderationArt.8of theSPA/BDProtocol(“2.TheSPAMIListmayincludesiteswhich:areofimportanceforconservingthe componentsofbiologicaldiversityintheMediterranean;containecosystemsspecifictotheMediterranean areaorthehabitatsofendangeredspecies;areofspecialinterestatthescientific,aesthetic,culturalor educationallevels”),wefilteredtheaforementioneddatainordertoprioritizetheimportanceofthe variousEBSAsandidentifyhighprioritysitesinMediterraneanABNJ. 5.Themethodthatwasusedtocollecttheinformationneededtoidentifythe10MediterraneanEBSAsis describedinNotarbartolodiSciaraandAgardy(2009a).Alltheinformationobtainedfromour correspondentsissummarisedinTable4‐1. 6.Wedonotsuggestthattheinformationwecollectedrepresentsacompletedescriptionofthe distributionofrelevantmarinebiodiversityintheMediterranean;however,giventheshorttimeavailable forthiscompilation,andconsideringthatwewereaskedbyRAC/SPAnottoincludeinformationon fisheriesanddeep‐seabiota,wesuggestthatwhatwepresenthereisagoodinitialrepresentationofthe ABNJbiotatobeconsideredforplace‐basedprotectionintheregion. 7.The10MediterraneanEBSAsmentionedabovearedescribedingreaterdetailinSection4.2(below).A kmzfilereadableonGoogleEarth(version5.0orgreater)issubmittedtogetherwiththisdocumentfora bestrepresentationofthecomplexofpolygonsusedinthecurrentanalysisandproposal. 34

8.Withinthe10EBSAsmentionedabove,wehaveidentifiedafirstlistof15potentialSPAMIsitesinthe MediterraneanABNJ,classifiedaccordingtoperceivedconservationpriority.The15potentialSPAMIsites aredescribedingreaterdetailinSection4.4.

4.2OverviewofMediterraneanEBSAs

9 1 5

Fig.4‐1.EBSAsidentifiedintheMediterraneanSea.1.AlboránSea;2.BalearicIslandsarea;3.GulfofLionarea;4.TyrrhenianSea; 5.TunisianPlateau;6.AdriaticSea;7.IonianSea;8.AegeanSea;9.LevantineSea;10.NileDeltaarea.

Fig.4‐1showsthe10EBSAswhichwereidentifiedusingexpertopinionandproxiesforbiodiversity hotspots.Table4‐1givessourceinformationforeachofthedatasetsusedtoidentifyEBSAs. FromthesurveyresultswewereabletorankthesetenEBSAsaccordingtothecriteriausedtoidentifythe polygonsthatformedthebasisfortheouterboundsofeachecologicallysignificantarea.ThoseEBSAsthat wereidentifiedasimportantforanumberofcriteria,asopposedtoasinglecriterion,wereaccorded higherranking.Inordertoaccountfordiscrepanciesindatacoverageandthenumberofrespondentsfrom eachregion,weaveragedcriteriavaluesacrossallresponsespertainingtoeachEBSAregion. 35

TherankingofthetenEBSAsisasfollows: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

AlboránSea GulfofLionarea NileDeltaarea AegeanSea IonianSea TyrrhenianSea BalearicIslandsarea TunisianPlateau LevantineSea AdriaticSea

GiventhatthepurposeoftheprojectistoidentifyprioritysitesforpossibleSPAMIdesignation,withthe goalofcreatingafuturerepresentativenetworkofmarineprotectedareastosafeguardMediterranean biodiversity,weacknowledgethatcertainareasoftheMediterraneanareunderrepresentedandthus shouldbegivenfirstpriorityinworktoestablishSPAMIsites.Apropos,wehaveplacedtheeasternand southernMediterraneanecoregionsfirstandforemostinthelistofpotentialSPAMIsites(Section4.4). WealsonotethattheoutstandingdearthofproposedEBSAsinthesouth‐easternportionofthe Mediterranean(Fig.4‐1)ismorelikelycausedbylackofinformationthanbyarealscarcityofbiodiversity featuresdeservingprotection,andthereforerecommendthatadequateinvestigationeffortbedevotedin thoseareasassoonaspossible.

Table4‐1.SourceinformationforthedatasetsusedtoidentifyMediterraneanEBSAs. n.

sub‐region

referent

Type

crit 1

crit 2

crit 3

crit 4

crit 5

1 DjiboutiSeamount

Alborán

S.Tudela

MPA

2 AlboránCrest

Alborán

S.Tudela

MPA

3 MotrilSeamount

Alborán

S.Tudela

MPA

4 SecodelosOlivosSeamount

Alborán

S.Tudela

MPA

5 EMalagacoast

Alborán

C.Carboneras

IBA

6 BayofAlmeria

Alborán

C.Carboneras

IBA

0 notABNJ:ImportantforaginggroundforseabirdswithintheAlboráncontext. notABNJ:importantbreedingcoloniesofgullsandternsthatusetheadjacentseato 0 forage

7 Alboránisland

Alborán

C.Carboneras

IBA

0 holdsoneofthemostimportantcoloniesofAudouin’sgullintheworld

8 ChafarinasIslands

Alborán

C.Carboneras

IBA

0 notABNJ:holdsthesecondmostimportantcolonyofAudouin’sgullatgloballevel

9 Al‐MansourSeamount

Alborán

S.Tudela

MPA

10 TorroxSeamount

39 WatersaroundIschia

Tyrrenian

ACCOBAMS

EBSA

3 4

0 importantsuitablehabitatforsmallpelagics(sardinesand/oranchovies)

Galeusmelastomusnurseryarea Lacaze‐DuthiersCanyon,Madrepora, at300m,submersible,dredges(Zibrowius 2003),CassidaigneCanyon,Madrepora,210‐510m,submersible(Bourcier& Zibrowius1973)

importanthabitatforspermwhales

Scyliorhinuscaniculanurseryarea

0 Commondolphin,stripeddolphin,Risso’sdolphin,spermwhale

TunisiaPlateau

S.Tudela

EBSA

41 TunisiaPlateauarea1

TunisiaPlateau

M.Bradai

EBSA

42 TunisiaPlateauarea2

TunisiaPlateau

M.Bradai

EBSA

43 StraitofSicily

TunisiaPlateau

C.Carboneras

EBSA

44 Malta‐OuterGabés

TunisiaPlateau

C.Carboneras

EBSA

Carcharodoncarchariasnurseryarea Severalbatoidsandwhitesharknursery,loggerheadturtlefeedingandwintering area,Maerlbeds High‐productivityarea:importantforfeedingofProcellariiformsnestinginTunisia 0 (Zembrais),Sicily(Egadiis)andPantelleria NewdatafromBirdLifeMaltaLIFEYelkouanShearwaterProjectshowimportanceof 0 theextensiveareaSEofMaltaforfeedingofthisMediterraneanendemicspecies.

45 Tunisian‐InnerGabés

P.Casale

EBSA

0 loggerheadturtlehabitat

46 StraitofSicily,Ionian

TunisiaPlateau TunisiaPlateau, Ionian

P.Casale

EBSA

0 loggerheadturtlehabitat

47 Polygon8

TunisiaPlateau

F.Serena

EBSA

48 Polygon9

TunisiaPlateau

F.Serena

EBSA

49 WatersaroundLampedusa

TunisiaPlateau

ACCOBAMS

EBSA

Squatinaoculataprobablenurseryarea

40 Bluefintunabreedingarea

Carcharodoncarchariasprobablenurseryarea

0 Finwhalewinterfeedinggrounds

50 WatersaroundMalta

TunisiaPlateau

ACCOBAMS

EBSA

0 Commondolphin UraniaBank,Lophelia,Madrepora,509‐613m,ROV(thisstudy),LinosaTrough, Lophelia,Madrepora,669‐679m,ROV(thisstudy),offMalta,Lophelia,Madrepora, 453‐612m,ROV(thisstudy),offMalta,Lophelia,Madrepora,392‐617m,demersal trawl(Schembrietal.2007)

0 importantsuitablehabitatforsmallpelagics(sardinesand/oranchovies)

0 loggerheadturtlehabitat

Lophelia,MadreporainStrait 74 ofSicily TunisiaPlateau

Freiwaldetal 2009

literature

87 InnerTunisianPlateau,Npart TunisiaPlateau

V.Agostini

EBSA

88 SWSicily

V.Agostini

EBSA

51 NorthernandcentralAdriatic Adriatic

P.Casale

EBSA

52 Polygon1

Adriatic

F.Serena

EBSA

53 Polygon2 LopheliaandMadrepora inS 76 AdriaticofPuglia

Adriatic

EBSA

Adriatic

F.Serena Freiwaldetal 2009

82 CentralwesternAdriatic

Adriatic

V.Agostini

EBSA

0 importantsuitablehabitatforsmallpelagics(sardinesand/oranchovies)

54 Ionian

Ionian

P.Casale

EBSA

0 loggerheadturtlehabitat

55 Polygon6

Ionian

F.Serena

EBSA

56 EasternIonianSea

Ionian

ACCOBAMS

EBSA

0 Rajaclavatanurseryarea Commondolphins,bottlenosedolphins,Cuvier’sbeakedwhales,finwhales,sperm 0 whales

57 HellenicTrench LopheliaandMadrepora in 75 GulfofTaranto

Ionian,Levantine ACCOBAMS Freiwaldetal Ionian 2009

EBSA

literature

78 Lopheliareefs

Ionian

GFCM

58 Polygon3

Aegean

F.Serena

EBSA

59 NorthernAegeanSea

Aegean

ACCOBAMS

EBSA

0 Commondolphin,harbourporpoise,monkseal,beakedwhale

60 EasternAegeanSea LopheliaandMadrepora 77 reefsoffThasos

Aegean

EBSA

0 Commondolphin,monkseal,beakedwhale

Aegean

ACCOBAMS Freiwaldetal 2009

83 NWestAegean

Aegean

V.Agostini

EBSA

0 importantsuitablehabitatforsmallpelagics(sardinesand/oranchovies)

84 NAegean

Aegean

V.Agostini

EBSA

0 importantsuitablehabitatforsmallpelagics(sardinesand/oranchovies)

85 SWAegean

Aegean

V.Agostini

EBSA

61 Bluefintunabreedingarea

Levantine

S.Tudela

EBSA

62 Bluefintunabreedingarea

Levantine

A.Gucu

EBSA

63 Monkseal1

Levantine

A.Gucu

MPA

64 Monkseal2

Levantine

A.Gucu

MPA

65 Keldag

Levantine

A.Gucu

MPA

66 RhodesGyre

Levantine

A.Gucu

EBSA

0 Importance:Oneofthe3spawninggroundsofBlueFinTuna(Thunnusthynnus) notABNJ.Importance:Thelargestandtheonlyviablemonksealcolonyalongthe 0 Turkishcoast notABNJ.Importance:Verypristinearea,intactCystoseiraandPosidoniameadows; important(breeding)habitatforseal,breedingsiteforAudouin'sGull(Larus 0 audouini). notABNJ.Importance:MaybethelastspotrepresentingintactrockyLevantine 0 coast.Alsoholdsasmallbreedingmonksealcolony Verysignificantoceanographicfeaturedrivenbystrongupwelling.Biological 0 importanceisnotwellknownhoweverwehavesampledsignificantamountofegg

TunisiaPlateau

Squalusacanthiasnurseryarea

Scyliorhinuscaniculanurseryarea BariCanyon,Lophelia,Madrepora, 306‐640m,ROV(thisstudy),GondolaSlide, Lophelia,Madrepora,674‐714m,ROV(thisstudy)

literature

Carcharinusplumbeusbreedingarea

2 2

0 Spermwhales,Cuvier’sbeakedwhales SantaMariadiLeuca,Lophelia,Madrepora, 300‐1100m,dredges,ROV(Tavianietal. 2005a,thisstudy),offGallipoli,Lophelia,Madrepora,603‐744m,ROV(thisstudy)

offThasos,Lophelia,Madrepora,300‐350m,dredging(Vafidisetal.1997)

andlarvae(ClupeidandSwordfish)ontheperipheryoftheupwellingregion.The regionisrichinCephalopods.Thereforetheregionmayalsobeimportantfor Cetaceans.(thelargestnumberofwhalestrandingfromTurkishfishermenare reportedthere). 67 RhodesGyre

Levantine

V.Barale

EBSA

68 Egyptianshelf

Levantine

P.Casale

EBSA

0 loggerheadandgreenturtlehabitat

69 Cyprus‐Turkey‐Syria

Levantine

P.Casale

EBSA

0 loggerheadandgreenturtlehabitat

0 beakedwhales,monkseal

0 Commondolphin

Levantine

F.Serena

EBSA

71 OffSTurkey,Syria

Levantine

ACCOBAMS

EBSA

72 OffNileDelta,SIsrael

Levantine

ACCOBAMS

EBSA

79 EratosthenesSeamount

Levantine

GFCM

80 Coldseeps

Levantine

GFCM

86 RhodesGyre

Levantine

V.Agostini

EBSA

0 Highprimaryproductivityofpelagicwaters

70 Polygon7

Rhinobatosrhinobatosnurseryarea

4.3DetailsofpolygonsusedtodesignateEBSAs.

Fig.4‐2.AlboránSea.OuterlimitsoftheAlboránEBSA.

Fig.4‐3.AlboránSea.AlboránEBSA,allpolygonscombined.

4 ‐ 13 3

Fig.4‐4.AlboránSea.Geomorphologicalfeatures:1:DjiboutiSeamount;2:AlboránCrest;3:Motril Seamount;4‐13:SecodelosOlivosSeamount;9:Al‐MansourSeamount;10:TorroxSeamount(S.Tudela,X. Pastor).

Fig.4‐5.AlboránSea.Highproductivityareas:12:Importantfeedingareaforlocally‐breedingbird populations(C.Carboneras);89:Importantsuitablehabitatforsmallpelagics(V.Agostini).

Fig.4‐6.AlboránSea.Importanthabitatforsignificantspecies:14:Loggerheadturtles(P.Casale);15: Scyliorhinuscaniculanurseryarea(F.Serena);16:Commondolphins,stripeddolphins,bottlenose dolphins,Cuvier’sbeakedwhales,pilotwhales(A.CañadasandR.Sagarminaga,ACCOBAMS).

Fig.4‐7.BalearicSea.OuterlimitsofBalearicSeaEBSA.

Fig.4‐8.BalearicSea.Allpolygonscombined.

18‐ 26

Fig.4‐9.BalearicSea.Geomorphologicalfeatures:17:AguilasSeamount;18‐26:EmileBaudot Seamount;25:PalosSeamount;27:MenorcaCanyon(S.Tudela,X.Pastor).

Fig.4‐10.BalearicSea.Highproductivityareas:23:EbroRiverSystem(C.Carboneras).

Fig.4‐11.BalearicSea.Importanthabitatforsignificantspecies:21:Bluefintunaspawninggrounds(S. Tudela;WWF2008);30:Importantloggerheadturtle(P.Casale)andvariousodontocete(Rendelland Cañadas2005)habitats;90:Importantspermwhalehabitat(RendellandCañadas2005).

Fig.4‐12.GulfofLion.OuterlimitsofGulfofLionEBSA.TheyellowareatotheEastoftheGulfofLion EBSAisthePelagosSanctuary,theonlyHighSeasSPAMIcurrentlyestablished.

Fig.4‐13.GulfofLion.Allpolygonscombined.

Fig.4‐14.GulfofLion.Geomorphologicalfeatures:19:PalamosCanyon;20:CapdeCreusCanyon(S. Tudela).

Fig.4‐15.GulfofLion.Highproductivityareas:22:Highprimaryproductivityofpelagicwaters(V. Barale);24:Highproductivityarea,importantforglobally‐threatenedandotherseabirdpopulations(C. Carboneras);81:Importantsuitablehabitatforsmallpelagics(V.Agostini).

Fig.4‐16.GulfofLion.Importanthabitatforsignificantspecies:28:finwhales(S.Panigada);29:striped dolphins,Risso’sdolphins,spermwhales(ACCOBAMS);73:MadreporareefsinLacaze‐Duthiersand CassidaigneCanyons,andpossiblybeyond(Freiwaldetal.2009).Theimportantareasforfinwhalesand stripeddolphinsextendintothePelagosSanctuary(yellowareatotheeast),andarenotshownhere.

Fig.4‐17.CentralTyrrhenianSea.31:Galeusmelastomusnurseryarea(F.Serena);32:Highprimary productivityofpelagicwaters(V.Barale);33:Importantareaforfeedingofendemicandotherseabird speciesofconservationconcernthatconcentrateforbreedinginCorsica‐Sardinia‐Tuscanarchipelagos (C.Carboneras);36:Scyliorhinuscanicula,Rajaclavata,R.asterias,Carcharhinusbrachyurus,Galeus melastomus,Etmopterusspinaxnurseryareas(F.Serena);38:Scyliorhinuscaniculanurseryarea(F. Serena).

Fig.4‐18.TunsianPlateau.OuterlimitsoftheTunisianPlateauEBSA.

Fig.4‐19.TunisianPlateauEBSA,allpolygonscombined.

41 40

48 42

Fig.4‐20.TunisianPlateau.Fishbreedingareas:40:Bluefintunabreedingarea(S.Tudela);41:White sharknurseryarea(M.N.Bradai);42:Severalbatoidspeciesandwhitesharknurseryarea(M.N.Bradai); 47:Whitesharkprobablenurseryarea(F.Serena);48:Whitesharkprobablenurseryarea(F.Serena).

49 44 87

Fig.4‐21.TunisianPlateau.Highproductivityareas:43:ImportantfeedingareaforProcellariiforms(C. Carboneras);44:Importantfeedingareaforendemicmarinebirds(C.Carboneras);49:Winterfeeding groundsforfinwhales(Caneseetal.2006;note:limitsmaybemuchwider);87:Potentialimportant suitablehabitatforsmallpelagics(V.Agostini);88:Importantsuitablehabitatforsmallpelagics(V. Agostini).

Fig.4‐22.TunisianPlateau.Importanthabitatforthreatenedspecies:45:Loggerheadturtles(P. Casale);46:Loggerheadturtles(P.Casale);50:Short‐beakedcommondolphins(ACCOBAMS‐Note: areamaybemuchwiderthanthat).

Fig.4‐23.TunisianPlateau.LopheliaandMadreporareefs:74:UraniaBank,LinosaTrough,offMalta (Freiwaldetal.2009;note:importantareamaybespreadmuchwider,andextendtootherbanksand abundantseamounts).

Fig.4‐24.NorthernAdriaticSea.51:Loggerheadturtlefeedinghabitat(P.Casale);52:Squalus acanthias,Prionaceglaucanurseryarea(F.Serena);53:Scyliorhinuscaniculanurseryarea(F.Serena); 82:Importantsuitablehabitatforsmallpelagics(sardinesand/oranchovies)(V.Agostini).

55 54 56

Fig.4‐25.NorthernIonianSea.54:Loggerheadturtlefeedinghabitat(P.Casale);55:Rajaclavata nurseryarea(F.Serena);56:Commondolphin,bottlenosedolphin,beakedwhale,finwhale,sperm whalehabitat(ACCOBAMS);75:LopheliaandMadreporareefs(Freiwaldetal.2009);78:Lopheliareefs (GFCM).

83 77

Fig.4‐26.NorthernAegeanSea.59:Commonandbottlenosedolphins,harbourporpoise,beaked whale,monksealhabitats(ACCOBAMS,MOm);77:LopheliaandMadreporareefsoffThasos(Freiwald etal.2009);83:Importantsuitablehabitatforsmallpelagics(V.Agostini);84:Importantsuitablehabitat forsmallpelagics(V.Agostini;seealso:AgostiniandBakun2002).

71 67

62 66

61 70

Fig.4‐27.NorthernLevantineSea.57:HellenicTrenchspermwhaleandbeakedwhalehabitat(ACCOBAMS);61:Bluefintuna spawningground(S.Tudela);62:Bluefintunaspawningground(A.Gücü,Heinischetal.2008);66:Significantoceanographic featuredrivenbystrongupwelling,richincephalopods,clupeidandscombriformeggsandlarvae,possiblycetaceans(A.Gücü),67: Highprimaryproductivityofpelagicwaters(V.Barale;Fig.4‐28):

Fig.4‐28.PrimaryproductivityinducedbytheRhodesGyreinMarch2008.

69:Loggerheadandgreenturtlehabitat(P.Casale);70:Rhinobatosspp.nurseryarea(F.Serena);71:Beakedwhale(ACCOBAMS), monkseal(A.Gücü)habitat;79:EratosthenesSeamount(GFCM;GalilandZibrowius1998);86:Highprimaryproductivityofpelagic waters(V.Agostini).

Fig.4‐29.NileDeltaarea.68:Egyptianshelfloggerheadandgreenturtlehabitat(P.Casale);72:Possiblecommondolphin habitat(ACCOBAMS);80:Coldseeps(GFCM).

4.4ResultingpotentialSPAMIsitesintheMediterraneanABNJ. KeepinginspecialconsiderationArt.8oftheSPA/BDProtocol(“2.TheSPAMIListmayincludesiteswhich: areofimportanceforconservingthecomponentsofbiologicaldiversityintheMediterranean;contain ecosystemsspecifictotheMediterraneanareaorthehabitatsofendangeredspecies;areofspecialinterest atthescientific,aesthetic,culturaloreducationallevels”),wehaveidentified15potentialSPAMIsites within10EBSAs,acrosseightMediterraneansubregions,forconsiderationbytheContractingPartiestothe BarcelonaConvention.Fig.4‐30(below)showsthedistributionofthesefifteensites,withthecentrumof eachpinpointedonthemap.TheactualboundariesforeachoftheseSPAMIproposalscannotbe determinedatthistime,butcanbeelaboratedwithfurther,morefocusedresearch,totakeintoaccount: a)physicalandbiologicalfeaturesofthesite,b)considerationsofnetwork‐wideconnectivityand representativity,c)allowancesforfeasibilityissuestoinfluenceprotectedareadesign,sothatconservation effectivenesscanbemaximised(ConventiononBiologicalDiversity2008),andd)ananalysisofthecurrent andpotentialthreatstomarinebiodiversityfeaturesoccurringineachsite,whichcouldbebestaddressed throughplace‐basedconservationandmanagementmeasures.

H L K E G

B J A

Fig.4‐30.ProspectiveSPAMIsites.

ThefifteenprospectiveSPAMIsitesaredeliberatelyrecommendedwithoutindicatinganorderof ecologicalpriority,consideringthattheoverarchingpriorityisnotoneofdesignatingonesiteinsteadof another,butratherofincreasingtheecologicalrepresentativenessoftheoverallregionalnetworkbyfilling thecurrentwidegapsinthecentralandeasternMediterranean,andalongitssouthernshore. 59

TheprospectiveSPAMIsites,withthemainecologicalcharacteristicsthatdrivebiodiversityimportance,are asfollows(forgreaterdetails,pleaseseethesingleEBSAdescriptionsandmapsinSection4.3): Proposedsitecentrum(indicative) Sub‐region A.NileDeltaRegion: ThissouthernportionoftheLevantineSeaincludesrecentlydiscoveredcold seeps,aswellasimportantseaturtle‐andpossiblycetacean‐habitat. B.EratosthenesSeamount: TheseamounthasbeenidentifiedbytheGFCMasacriticalfisherieshabitatand representshighproductivityofpelagicanddeepwaterspecies,andrichand diversebenthicfauna. LevantineSea

C.NortheasternWatersoffCyprus: Thisareaencompassesimportantbluefintunaspawninggroundsaswellaskey marinemammalhabitat. D.RhodesGyre: ThisoceanographicfeatureisthemostproductiveineasternMediterranean pelagicwatersandislikelytoprovidecriticalhabitatforbothfisheryspeciesand marinemammals. E.NorthernAegean: ThisportionoftheAegeanSeaishighlyproductiveandincludeskeyhabitatfor theMediterraneanmonksealandothermarinemammals,aswellasdeepsea coralhabitat.ThecorrespondingEBSAencompassestheGreekNationalMarine ParkofAlonissosandtheNorthernSporades.

AegeanSea

F.NortheasternIonian: ThenorthesternIonianSeaincludescetaceancriticalhabitatandimportant nurseryareasforseveralsharkspecies. IonianSea

G.NorthernIonian: InadditiontosupportingabroadarrayofMediterraneandiversity,thisnorthern extentoftheIonianhassignificantdeepseacoralhabitat. H.NorthernAdriatic: ThisportionoftheAdriatichasahighnaturalproductivitythatsupportsan extensivefoodweb,includingloggerheadseaturtlesandseveralsharkspecies. ConsideringthehighlevelofdegradationoftheNorth‐westernAdriaticSea, establishingaprotectedareainthissitewouldrequiresignificantmarine restorationeffort. I.NorthernStraitofSicily:

TunisianPlateau 60

AdriaticSea

Thisportionofthesouth‐centralMediterraneancontainscriticalcetacean habitat,deepseacorals,seamounts,andhighlyproductivebanks. J.TunisianPlateau: TheTunisianPlateauregionoftheSicilyStraitsupportsahighproductivityand nurseryareasforseveralsharkspecies. K.CentralTyrrenian: ThisportionoftheTyrrenianSea,adjacenttothePelagosSanctuary,ishighly productive,supportingmarinemammalandsharkspecies.

TyrrhenianSea

L.GulfofLionShelfandslope: ThishighlyproductiveshelfregionofthegreaterGulfofLionalsocontains deepseacanyonsofbiodiversitysignificance.Theareaalsosharesimportant cetaceanhabitatswiththecontiguousPelagosSanctuary,andislikelyinhabited bythesamecetaceanpopulationsthatoccurintheSanctuary.Itthisrepresents thenaturalcontinuationwestward,involvingwatersoffFranceandSpain,of cetaceanconservationmeasuresforeseeninthePelagosSanctuary.

Western MediterraneanSea

M.SouthernBalearic: ThisareaoftheWesternMediterraneancontainsseamountsandprovides criticalspawninghabitatforbluefintunaandcriticalcetaceanhabitataswell. N.AlboránSeamounts: TheseamountsinthisportionoftheAlboránSeasupportawidearrayofmarine biodiversity,andthesitecontainscetaceancriticalhabitat. Alboránsea

O.SouthwesternAlborán: ThesouthwesternprotionoftheAlboránSeaishighlyproductiveandisalsoa transitcorridorforspeciestravellingbetweentheeasternAtlanticand MediterraneanSea.

5.RoadmapforthesuccessfulimplementationofSPAMIsinMediterraneanAreas BeyondNationalJurisdiction AsperthemethodologyelaboratedinNotarbartolodiSciaraandAgardy(2008),wehavedelineatedthe majorsubregionsoftheMediterraneanBasin(8),theoutstandingEcologicallyandBiologicallySignificant Areaswithinthosesubregions(10),andseveralpotentialSPAMIsiteswithinthoseEBSAs(15).However, muchremainstobedoneinprovidingguidancetotheContractingPartiestotheBarcelonaConvention concerningadditionalresearchandanalysisneeded,theoptimalorderforSPAMIplanningand implementation,andhoweachprotectedareashouldbedesigned. DespiteadearthofdataonthenatureandstatusofbiodiversityinMediterraneanoceanareasbeyond nationaljurisdiction(ABNJ),asurveyofexpertopinionhasrevealedbothlargescaleareashavingecological significance(hereinreferredtoasEBSAs),andsmallerareaswithintheseEBSAsthatstandoutas noteworthyforconservation.However,declaringprotectedareasspanningeachoftheseidentified priorityareaswouldnotnecessaryassurethatarepresentativenetworkwouldbecreatedtomaximize biodiversityconservationintheMediterranean.Norisawholesaledesignationofthismanylargesites,in areasnotcontrolledbyanysinglenation,necessarilyfeasible. Giventhattheoverallobjectiveofestablishinganetworkofrepresentativemarineprotectedareasisto capturethefullsuiteofMediterraneanbiodiversityandutiliseprotectedareastoconserveit,theentire networkofSPAMIsitesmustbeevaluatedintermsofitsgeographicalrepresentation(i.e.givingequal weighttounderrepresentedareasliketheeasternandsouthernportionsoftheBasin),aswellasits representationofallmajorhabitattypesandculturalregimes.Furtheranalysis,withmorestatistically rigorousmethodologies(e.g.,throughacombinationofDelphicmethodsanddecisionsupporttoolssuchas MARXAN,seeArdronetal.2008),isneededtoensurethattheproposednetworkofSPAMIsismaximally effectiveandrepresentative. AdditionalresearchandanalysisisalsoneededtohelpguidethedesignofeachindividualSPAMIsite. Considerationsthatinfluencedesignincludeassessingthreatstobiodiversityateachsite,sothat managementwithintheSPAMIaddressestruethreats,aswellasfeasibilityconsiderations.Itmustbe emphasizedthatthepotentialSPAMIlistcontainedhereinprovidescentraforeachpriorityareaand deliberatelyomitsprovidingouterboundsforprospectiveSPAMIsites,sincetheseboundariesmustbe determinedbybothdirectedresearchonthearea’sbiodiversityandarobustanalysisofthreats. Finally,giventhatresourcesandtimearelimited,astrategicplanforphasinginSPAMIdesignand implementationmustbedeveloped.SuchastrategicplanwillnotonlyensurethatindividualSPAMIsareas effectiveaspossible,butthatthewholeisgreaterthanthesumofitsparts:i.e.thatthenetworkofABNJ SPAMIscapturesbiodiversitythroughadequatesizesofprotectedareas,effectiveconnectivitybetween sites,andappropriatemanagementateachlocation. Wethereforeproposeasubsequentinitiativewiththreeessentialcomponents: 1.DevelopmentofastrategicplantoelaboratetheprioritieswithintheSPAMIlist,including considerationsofthechronologywithwhicharegion‐wideSPAMInetworkshouldbeplannedand implemented; 62

2.Targetedresearchtodeterminewithgreaterspecificitytheecologicalcharacteristicsofeach priorityarea,itsboundaries,anddirectthreatstothebiodiversitytheareasupports;and 3.AnalysestodeterminetheoptimalspatialmanagementschemeforeachoftheSPAMIs,including whetherprotectedareasshouldbezoned,whatsortofregulationsshouldbeinstituted,howareas shouldbemonitoredandregulationsenforced,andtheappropriategovernanceregimeforthese ABNJareas. Atthesametime,wesuggestthatcontinuingorperiodicresearchshouldbeorganisedindata‐poor Mediterraneansubregions(e.g.,LevantineSea,AegeanSea,S.IonianSea,GulfofSidra)toensurethatthe inventoryoftheregion’sEBSAsiscompleteandthatbiodiversity‐relevantareasarenotleftoutofthe process. Recommendationsonhowtoapproachthesethreecomponentsareprovidedindetailbelow.

5.1StrategicplanforcatalyzingSPAMIplanninganddesignation OursurveyoftheliteratureandourconsultationwithMediterraneanexpertshasallowedustoquantify theextenttowhichparticularcriteriaweremostpivotalinleadingtoasitebeingidentifiedasapriority. Wecannowusethisdatatodevelopastrategicplanthatcouldprioritizethesites,indicatingwhichof themshouldbethefocusofimmediateattentionfromRAC/SPAandtheConferenceofPartiestothe BarcelonaConvention,andwhichsitescouldbeconsideredatalaterdate.Therecommendedchronology ofsite‐specificplanning,aswellasthedesignofthefinalMediterraneanABNJSPAMInetwork,couldbe derivedthroughanumberofdifferentoptimizationmethodologies,includingspatialcriteriaanalysisand decision‐supportsoftwaresuchasMARXAN(e.g.,Ardronetal.2008). WerecommendthatindesigningafinalMediterraneanABNJSPAMInetwork,dueconsiderationbegiven tothecriteriaofa)representativity,b)connectivity,andc)replication,asdetailedinAnnexIIIoftheCBD reportofthe13thSBSSTAMeeting(ConventiononBiologicalDiversity2008),andsummarisedinTable5‐1 (seealsosection3.2ofthisdocumentforamoredetaileddescriptionofthesecriteria). Wealsorecommendthatthenextimportantstepalongourroadmapisthedevelopmentofastrategicplan usingthesetools,soasnottolosecrucialtimeinimplementingaSPAMInetworkthatmosteffectively conservestherepresentativebiodiversityoftheMediterraneanBasin.

5.2TargetedresearchinpotentialSPAMIsites Giventhepaucityofinformationaboutspeciesdistributions,abundances,andecosystemdynamicsinareas beyondthenearshorecoastalzonesoftheMediterranean,andtheinconsistencyofknowledgeacrossthe Basin(withlargepartsofthesouthernandeasternportionsofthesealargelyunknown),itisclearthat furtherinformationmustbeobtainedtoguidetheeffectivedesignofSPAMIs.Werecognizethatthe Delphicprocessofconsultingalargesamplingofexpertsinordertodeterminecollectiveprioritieshasa fundamentalweaknessinthattheextenttowhichresultsaresupportedbydatavary,asdoesthe conceptualprocessthatledeachexperttoidentifyimportantsites.Thatsaid,therewasahighdegreeof 63

concordanceacrosstheopinionsofexpertsspecializingindivergentfields,suggestingthattheresultinglist ofpotentialSPAMIsitesdoespointtoecologicalsignificance. Requirednetwork criteria Ecologicallyand biologically significantareas

Definition

Representativity

Representativityiscapturedinanetworkwhenit consistsofareasrepresentingthedifferent biogeographicalsubdivisionsoftheglobaloceans andregionalseasthatreasonablyreflectthefull rangeofecosystems,includingthebioticand habitatdiversityofthosemarineecosystems. Connectivityinthedesignofanetworkallowsfor linkageswherebyprotectedsitesbenefitfrom larvaland/orspeciesexchanges,andfunctional linkagesfromothernetworksites.Inaconnected network,individualsitesbenefitoneanother.

Connectivity

Ecologicallyandbiologicallysignificantareasare geographicallyoroceanographicallydiscreteareas thatprovideimportantservicestooneormore species/populationsofanecosystemortothe ecosystemasawhole,comparedtoother surroundingareasorareasofsimilarecological characteristics,orotherwisemeetthecriteriaas identifiedinannexII.

Replicated ecologicalfeatures

Replicationofecologicalfeaturesmeansthatmore thanonesiteshallcontainexamplesofa*given featureinthegivenbiogeographicarea.Theterm featuresmeans“species,habitatsandecological processes”thatnaturallyoccurinthegiven biogeographicarea.

Adequate&Viable sites

Adequate&viablesitesindicatethatallsiteswithin anetworkshouldhavesizeandprotection sufficienttoensuretheecologicalviabilityand integrityofthefeature(s)forwhichtheywere selected.

Applicablesite‐specificconsiderations (interalia) Uniquenessorrarity Specialimportanceforlifehistory stagesofspecies Importanceforthreatened, endangeredordecliningspecies and/orhabitats/ Vulnerability/fragility/sensitivity/ slowrecovery Biologicalproductivity Biologicaldiversity Naturalness Afullrangeofexamplesacrossa biogeographichabitatorcommunity classification;relativehealthofspecies andcommunities;relativeintactness ofhabitat(s);naturalness Currents;gyres;physicalbottlenecks; migrationroutes;speciesdispersal; detritus;functionallinkages.Naturally unconnectedsitesmayalsobe included(e.g.,isolatedseamount communities) Accountingforuncertainty,natural variationandthepossibilityof catastrophicevents.Featuresthat exhibitlessnaturalvariationorare preciselydefinedmayrequireless replicationthanfeatureswhichare inherentlyhighlyvariableorareonly verygenerallydefined. Size;shape;buffers;persistenceof features;threats;surrounding environment(context);physical constraints;scaleof features/processes; spillover/compactness;

Table5‐1.Scientificcriteriaandguidanceforselectingareastoestablisharepresentativenetworkof marineprotectedareas,includinginopenoceanwatersanddeep‐seahabitats (Table2,AnnexIIIinConventiononBiologicalDiversity2008).

ExpertopinioncanalsobeusedtopinpointwhichofthepotentialSPAMIsitesaremostinneedof additionalresearch.Wethereforeproposethatanimportantfirststepinourroadmapbeananalysisof theinformationcollected–boththroughexpertopinionregardingbiodiversityandthroughadditional studiesthathavebeendoneonfisheriesanddeepseaaspectsoftheMediterranean–inorderto determineareasmostneedingattentionforadditionalinformationgathering.Thisinformationcouldbein theformofdirectedoceanographicandecologicalresearch,aswellasdirectedliteraturereviewand furtherexpertconsultationspecifictothegeographieshighlightedintheprioritylist. 64

5.3AnalysestoguiderecommendedMPAdesignateachSPAMIsite Oncetheprioritylistiselaboratedinchronologicalorder,theplanningofeachSPAMImustbeundertaken, takingintoaccountnotonlythethreatstotheparticularsiteandthespecieswithinit,butalsothepolitical, economic,andlogisticalfeasibilitiesofprotectingthearea.Thismustbedoneonasite‐by‐sitebasis, guidedbythebestpossibleinformationonecology,humanuses,andimpactsoftheseuses. WefeelstronglythatSPAMIsareonlyasgoodastheirmanagementregime:thedifficulttaskisthusnotthe selectionofSPAMIsitesomuchasastuteplanningtoprovideappropriateandeffectivegovernance mechanisms,determineboundariesoftheprotectedarea,zoningwithinit,andregulationspertainingto eachzone.Inaddition,SPAMIsshouldbeplannedwitharesearchandmonitoringprotocolthatnotonly furthersourscientificunderstandingbutalsoactstoallowSPAMImanagementtobeadaptedasneedsand conditionschange. Whileitisclearthattimeisoftheessence,deliberate,strategicandrobustplanningshouldunderpineach SPAMIdesignationinAreasBeyondNationalJurisdiction.Thereasonforthisisthatitisintheorymore difficulttoadaptthemanagementoftheareasoutsideSPAMIs,inordertoensurethatthese‘islandsof protection’arenotunderminedbydegradationinsurroundingABNJareas,thaninsidetheEEZorTerritorial Seasofanycoastalnation,whereinputsandoutputscanbebettercontrolled.Thus,itisimperativethat theSPAMIbewell‐designed,andmanagedadaptively. InundertakingastrategicSPAMIplanningprocess,thefollowingarecommonelements: 1. Boundingecosystemstodeterminescaleandscopeofmanagement; 2. Assessingecosystemconditions,threats,anddrivers; 3. Appraisingmanagementneeds; 4. Integratingmanagementandevaluatingtrade‐offsandchoices; 5. Monitoringtodetermineefficacyofmanagement. Finally,itwillbeimportanttoperiodicallyevaluatetheextenttowhichtheentireMediterraneanSPAMI networkismeetingthegoalsputforwardbytheBarcelonaConvention.Evaluatingthewholenetworkwill meandeterminingnotonlymanagementeffectiveness,buttheextenttowhichthesystemistruly representativeoftheMediterranean’sgreatwealthofbiodiversity.

6.Acknowledgments Wewishtowarmlythankthefollowingcolleagueswhograciouslyagreedtoparticipatetooursurveyto identifyEBSAsintheMediterraneanSea:VeraAgostini,TheNatureConservancy,USA;VittorioBarale,Joint ResearchCentre,Ispra,Italy;MohammedNejmeddineBradai,INSTM,Sfax,Tunisia;AnaCañadasand RicardoSagarminaga,Alnitak,Madrid,Spain;CarlesCarboneras,ConsultanttotheMinisteriodeMedio AmbienteyMedioRuralyMarino,Madrid,Spain;PaoloCasale,IUCNMarineTurtleSpecialistGroupand WWFItaly,Rome,AliCemalGücü,MiddleEastTechnicalUniversity,Erdemli,Turkey;SimonePanigada, TethysResearchInstitute,Milano,Italy;XavierPastor,OceanaEurope,Madrid,Spain;FabrizioSerena, IUCNSharkSpecialistGroupandARPAT,Italy;SergiTudela,WWFInternationalMediterraneanProgram Office,Barcelona,Spain.Wealsogratefullyacknowledgethesupportwehavereceivedfrom:JeffArdron, BenBest,KristinaGjerde,RainerFroese,DavidHyrenbach,DaniKerem,FiorenzaMicheli,ChristinePergent, ChedlyRais,IsabelleTaupier‐Letage,andJoaquínTintoré.

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